ARISTOTLE - Polítics E-Book

Aristotle

• Herausgeber: Lebooks Editora
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: Philosophy Series
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Seitenzahl: 451

Beschreibung

Politics is a work dedicated to the theme of political philosophy, in the form conceived by the Greek philosopher Aristotle. It is believed that Aristotle's reflections on politics originated from the time when he was the tutor of Alexander the Great. In Politics, the great Greek philosopher discusses the science of politics, the composition of cities (polis), processes of slavery, wealth, and families. In the work, it is also possible to find some criticisms by the thinker of his master Plato, who, in turn, made more utopian reflections on the ideal model of society and politics. A systematic translation of the original Greek title gives a clear idea of the content of the work: "matters related to the polis." Politics is a work full of profound reflections, An indispensable ebook in the field of philosophy and politics.

Leseprobe

Aristotle

Politics

Original Title:

“Πολιτικά,Politiká”

Contents

INTRODUCTION

BOOK ONE

BOOK TWO

BOOK THREE

BOOK FOUR

BOOK FIVE

BOOK SIX

BOOK SEVEN

BOOK EIGHT

INTRODUCTION

“Plato and Aristotle in the School of Athens" by Raphael Sanzio (1509)

Aristotle (384–322 BC) was a philosopher, polymath, and scientist born in the city of Stagira, in northern Ancient Greece. Alongside Plato, he is considered the father of Western philosophy. His ideas have exerted enormous influence on the intellectual history of the West for over two millennia.

He was a disciple of Plato and other thinkers, such as Eudoxus of Cnidus, during the twenty years he spent at the Academy in Athens. Shortly after Plato's death, Aristotle left Athens to become the teacher of Alexander the Great in the Kingdom of Macedonia for nearly 5 years. In the last stage of his life, he founded the Lyceum in Athens, where he taught until a year before his death.

Aristotle wrote about 200 works, of which only those collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum have been preserved (none of them intended for publication), covering a vast array of topics including logic, metaphysics, philosophy of science, ethics, political philosophy, aesthetics, rhetoric, physics, astronomy, and biology. Aristotle transformed many, if not all, of the areas of knowledge he addressed. He is recognized as the founding father of logic and biology, as while there were previous reflections and writings on both subjects, it is in Aristotle's work where the first systematic investigations are found. Aristotle has also been called the father of political science, zoology, embryology, natural law, scientific method, rhetoric, psychology, realism, critique, individualism, teleology, and meteorology.

Contrary to Platonism, Aristotle developed a philosophy in which experience is the source of knowledge. According to his hylomorphic theory, every sensible entity is a substance composed of matter, which constitutes things, and form, which organizes matter, the latter being its essence. Every substance tends towards a final cause directed by its nature (teleology). According to the philosopher, the human being is a rational animal constituted by body and soul, whose ultimate end is intellectual activity through the exercise of reason, a virtue (areté) inherent to the soul, thus achieving happiness (eudaemonia). Ethical virtues, which are formed through habit, are the mean between two extremes or vices. Humans naturally live in community, thus forming States (polis) in order to preserve the happiness of their citizens. He also defended the value of rhetoric, poetic art, and the superiority of the Greek male.

Among many other contributions, Aristotle formulated the theory of spontaneous generation, the principle of non-contradiction, and the notions of category, substance, unmoved mover, actuality, and potentiality. Some of his ideas, which were innovative for the philosophy of his time, are now part of the common sense of many people. He influenced Islamic thought during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian scholasticism. His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics.

First Years

Aristotle was born in 384 or 383 BC, during the first year of Olympiad XCIX, in the city of Stagira, present-day Stavros (which is why he is nicknamed the Stagirite), not far from Mount Athos, on the Chalcidice peninsula, then part of the Kingdom of Macedonia (current region of Macedonia in Greece). His father, Nicomachus, belonged to the corporation of the Asclepiads, meaning he practiced medicine and was a physician to King Amyntas III of Macedonia, a fact that explains his relationship with the Macedonian royal court, which would have a significant influence on his life. His mother, Phaestis, was from Chalcis and was also connected to the Asclepiads.

During the reign of King Archelaus I of Macedonia, as his father was the physician to King Amyntas III of Macedonia, both resided in Pella, and Aristotle could not stay long in that place, as his parents died when he was still very young, and he probably moved to Atarneus. In 367 BC, when Aristotle was 17 years old, his father died, and he was taken care of by his guardian Proxenus of Atarneus, who sent him to Athens, then an important intellectual center of the Greek world, to study at Plato's Academy. He remained there for twenty years.

Period at the academy

To complete Aristotle's education, Proxenus sent him to Athens to enroll him in the Academy, as his and Plato's fame had already spread throughout the Greek world.

Aristotle met Plato when he was 17 years old and remained at the Academy from 367 or 366 BC to 347 or 346 BC, coinciding with the moment when Plato made his second trip to Sicily. Because Aristotle attended the Academy during its period of greatest splendor, he was able to develop properly. Eudoxus exerted the first decisive influence on Aristotle, as he was able to influence the requirement to "save the phenomena," which is to say, "find a principle that explained the facts while preserving their genuine mode of presentation." Plato himself called him "the reader" due to his desire to educate himself through writings rather than orally (as was done at the Academy).

Because Eudoxus's philosophical ideas differed from Platonic philosophy and led to aporias, Aristotle ignored them, but he did associate with Speusippus, Philip of Opus, Erastus, and Coriscus. Both Speusippus and Philip of Opus were heads of the Academy, Heraclides Ponticus directed it when Plato made his third trip to Sicily, Philip published the work Laws, and Erastus and Coriscus associated their names with Aristotle. During this youthful period, he wrote several dialogues and the Protrepticus, a popular exhortation to philosophy addressed to the general public. None of these works have been preserved.

Aristotle probably participated in the Eleusinian Mysteries, writing about them: "Experience is learning."

Formation of his philosophy

After Plato's death in 347 BC, Aristotle left Athens. Traditional history records that Aristotle left due to his disappointment that the direction of the Academy passed to Plato's nephew, Speusippus, although this is unlikely, as a Macedonian could not inherit Athenian property. It is possible that he feared anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato's death.

Aristotle moved to Atarneus and Assos, in Asia Minor, where he lived for approximately three years under the protection of his friend and former Academy companion, Hermias, who was the governor of the city. When Hermias was murdered, Aristotle moved to the city of Mytilene, on the island of Lesbos, where he stayed for two years. There, he continued his research with Theophrastus, a native of Lesbos, focusing on zoology and marine biology. Additionally, he married Pythias of Assos, Hermias's niece, with whom he had a daughter of the same name.

Alexander the Great and the Lyceum

Alexander the Great and Aristotle. The philosopher was his intellectual mentor and instilled his knowledge in him during his adolescent years for more than two years. It is considered that these teachings were decisive elements for the objectives that Alexander set for himself. His nephew, Callisthenes, who was his biographer, accompanied him in the campaign against Persia. The letters between Alexander and Aristotle were recorded in the book by Pseudo Callisthenes, The Life and Deeds of Alexander of Macedonia.

In 343 BC, King Philip II of Macedonia summoned Aristotle to tutor his 13-year-old son, who would later become known as Alexander the Great, in the town of Mieza. Aristotle then traveled to Pella, then the capital of the Macedonian empire, and taught Alexander for at least two years until he began his military career. During Aristotle's time at the Macedonian court, he also gave lessons to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander.

In 335 BC, Aristotle returned to Athens and founded his own school, the Lyceum (named after being located within an enclosure dedicated to the god Apollo Lyceus).

Unlike the Academy, the Lyceum was not a private school, and many of the classes were public and free. Throughout his life, Aristotle amassed a vast library and a number of followers and researchers, known as the 'peripatetics,' named for their habit of discussing while walking. Most of Aristotle's surviving works are from this period. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. The surviving works are in the form of treaties and were not intended, for the most part, for publication.

During this period, his wife, Pythias, died, and Aristotle began a new relationship with Herpyllis, believed to be, like him, a native of Stagira. Although some suppose she was nothing more than his slave, others deduce from Aristotle's last wishes that she was a free woman and probably his wife at the time of his death. In any case, they had offspring together, including a son, Nicomachus, whom Aristotle named as his father and to whom he dedicated his Nicomachean Ethics.

Although little is known of his physical appearance, Aristotle was described as bald, with short legs, small eyes, stuttering, elegant in dress, and based on his own opinions, lacking ascetic habits. He was a practical man and a careful observer. Of lofty mind and good heart, dedicated to his loved ones, and fair to his rivals. Diogenes Laertius declared that he had a tendency to mockery and cites some expressions that testify to his quick wit.

Death

When Alexander died in 323 BC, Athens likely became an uncomfortable place for the Macedonians, especially for those with Aristotle's connections. It is said that he declared that "he saw no reason to let Athens sin twice against philosophy" (clear allusion to the condemnation of Socrates). Aristotle left Athens and settled in Chalcis, on the island of Euboea, where he strangely died the following year at the age of 61 or 62, in 322 BC, from a disease of the digestive organs. His will was preserved by Diogenes Laertius.

In May 2016, during the international congress "Aristotle, 2,400 years" held at the University of Thessaloniki, Konstantinos Sismanidis, director of the excavations in the city of Stagira, announced the conclusions of his team of archaeologists about a building discovered in 1996 and now re-examined in the light of two manuscripts that refer to the later transfer of the philosopher's ashes, in a bronze urn, to his hometown. According to them, the building, found inside a later Byzantine fortress, "can be nothing but Aristotle's mausoleum," although they clarified that "we have no evidence, but very strong indications that approach certainty."

Thought

Aristotle's thought encompasses virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle did philosophy in a broad sense, which he would also describe as "science." The use of the term science has a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method." He distinguishes three types of philosophies, sciences, or knowledge: practical knowledge, which includes ethics and politics; productive knowledge, meaning the study of the arts, including poetics; and theoretical knowledge, purely contemplative as it does not intervene in the object of study, which encompasses physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. Logic and rhetoric do not constitute substantive knowledge for Aristotle.

About Politics

Politics or "The Politics," in Latin, is one of Aristotle's most important works.

At the end of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle expresses that the investigation into ethics leads to politics, and therefore the two works are often considered parts of a broader treatise. At the end of the works, Aristotle suggests that politics is a way to maintain society "ordered" with norms and rules. The title literally means "things concerning the polis."

For Aristotle, Politics was not a study of ideal states in abstract form but rather an examination of how ideals, laws, customs, and properties interrelate in real cases. However, Politics is the main work where his political doctrines are found. The library of the Lyceum contained a collection of 158 constitutions, both from Greek and foreign states. Aristotle himself wrote the Constitution of Athens as part of the collection, a work that was lost until 1890 when it was recovered. Historians have found in this text very valuable data to reconstruct some phases of Athenian history.

Aristotle's political philosophy is based on five principles:

The principle of teleology: Nature has an end; therefore, humans have a function (a task) to assume.

The principle of perfection: "the ultimate good or happiness (eudaimonia) of the human being consists in perfection, in the full realization of their natural function, which he sees as the movement of the soul granted to reason."

The principle of community: The most perfect community is the City-State. Indeed, being neither too large nor too small, it corresponds to human nature and allows for a good life.

The principle of government: "The existence and well-being of any system require the presence of a governing element."

The principle of the rule of reason: Like Plato, Aristotle believes that the non-rational part of man should be governed by the rational part.

POLITICS BY ARISTOTLE

BOOK ONE

SECTION 1

Every state is a community of some kind, and every community is established with a view to some good; for mankind always act in order to obtain that which they think good. But, if all communities aim at some good, the state or political community, which is the highest of all, and which embraces all the rest, aims at good in a greater degree than any other, and at the highest good.

Some people think that the qualifications of a statesman, king, householder, and master are the same, and that they differ, not in kind, but only in the number of their subjects. For example, the ruler over a few is called a master; over more, the manager of a household; over a still larger number, a statesman or king, as if there were no difference between a great household and a small state. The distinction which is made between the king and the statesman is as follows: When the government is personal, the ruler is a king; when, according to the rules of the political science, the citizens rule and are ruled in turn, then he is called a statesman.

But all this is a mistake; for governments differ in kind, as will be evident to anyone who considers the matter according to the method which has hitherto guided us. As in other departments of science, so in politics, the compound should always be resolved into the simple elements or least parts of the whole. We must therefore look at the elements of which the state is composed, in order that we may see in what the different kinds of rule differ from one another, and whether any scientific result can be attained about each one of them.

SECTION 2

He who thus considers things in their first growth and origin, whether a state or anything else, will obtain the clearest view of them. In the first place there must be a union of those who cannot exist without each other; namely, of male and female, that the race may continue (and this is a union which is formed, not of deliberate purpose, but because, in common with other animals and with plants, mankind have a natural desire to leave behind them an image of themselves), and of natural ruler and subject, that both may be preserved. For that which can foresee by the exercise of mind is by nature intended to be lord and master, and that which can with its body give effect to such foresight is a subject, and by nature a slave; hence master and slave have the same interest. Now nature has distinguished between the female and the slave.

For she is not niggardly, like the smith who fashions the Delphian knife for many uses; she makes each thing for a single use, and every instrument is best made when intended for one and not for many uses. But among barbarians no distinction is made between women and slaves, because there is no natural ruler among them: they are a community of slaves, male and female. Wherefore the poets say, It is meet that Hellenes should rule over barbarians; as if they thought that the barbarian and the slave were by nature one.

Out of these two relationships between man and woman, master and slave, the first thing to arise is the family, and Hesiod is right when he says,

First house and wife and an ox for the plough,

for the ox is the poor man's slave. The family is the association established by nature for the supply of men's everyday wants, and the members of it are called by Charondas 'companions of the cupboard,' and by Epimenides the Cretan, 'companions of the manger.' But when several families are united, and the association aims at something more than the supply of daily needs, the first society to be formed is the village. And the most natural form of the village appears to be that of a colony from the family, composed of the children and grandchildren, who are said to be suckled 'with the same milk.' And this is the reason why Hellenic states were originally governed by kings; because the Hellenes were under royal rule before they came together, as the barbarians still are. Every family is ruled by the eldest, and therefore in the colonies of the family the kingly form of government prevailed because they were of the same blood. As Homer says:

Each one gives law to his children and to his wives.

For they lived dispersedly, as was the manner in ancient times. Wherefore men say that the Gods have a king, because they themselves either are or were in ancient times under the rule of a king. For they imagine, not only the forms of the Gods, but their ways of life to be like their own.

When several villages are united in a single complete community, large enough to be nearly or quite self-sufficing, the state comes into existence, originating in the bare needs of life, and continuing in existence for the sake of a good life. And therefore, if the earlier forms of society are natural, so is the state, for it is the end of them, and the nature of a thing is its end. For what each thing is when fully developed, we call its nature, whether we are speaking of a man, a horse, or a family. Besides, the final cause and end of a thing is the best, and to be self-sufficing is the end and the best.

Hence it is evident that the state is a creation of nature, and that man is by nature a political animal. And he who by nature and not by mere accident is without a state, is either a bad man or above humanity; he is like the Tribeless, lawless, heartless one, whom Homer denounces -- the natural outcast is forthwith a lover of war; he may be compared to an isolated piece at draughts.

Now, that man is more of a political animal than bees or any other gregarious animals is evident. Nature, as we often say, makes nothing in vain, and man is the only animal whom she has endowed with the gift of speech. And whereas mere voice is but an indication of pleasure or pain and is therefore found in other animals (for their nature attains to the perception of pleasure and pain and the intimation of them to one another, and no further), the power of speech is intended to set forth the expedient and inexpedient, and therefore likewise the just and the unjust. And it is a characteristic of man that he alone has any sense of good and evil, of just and unjust, and the like, and the association of living beings who have this sense makes a family and a state.

Further, the state is by nature clearly prior to the family and to the individual, since the whole is of necessity prior to the part; for example, if the whole body be destroyed, there will be no foot or hand, except in an equivocal sense, as we might speak of a stone hand; for when destroyed the hand will be no better than that. But things are defined by their working and power; and we ought not to say that they are the same when they no longer have their proper quality, but only that they have the same name. The proof that the state is a creation of nature and prior to the individual is that the individual, when isolated, is not self-sufficing; and therefore he is like a part in relation to the whole. But he who is unable to live in society, or who has no need because he is sufficient for himself, must be either a beast or a god: he is no part of a state. A social instinct is implanted in all men by nature, and yet he who first founded the state was the greatest of benefactors. For man, when perfected, is the best of animals, but, when separated from law and justice, he is the worst of all; since armed injustice is the more dangerous, and he is equipped at birth with arms, meant to be used by intelligence and virtue, which he may use for the worst ends.

Wherefore, if he have not virtue, he is the most unholy and the most savage of animals, and the most full of lust and gluttony. But justice is the bond of men in states, for the administration of justice, which is the determination of what is just, is the principle of order in political society.

SECTION 3

Seeing then that the state is made up of households, before speaking of the state we must speak of the management of the household. The parts of household management correspond to the persons who compose the household, and a complete household consists of slaves and freemen. Now we should begin by examining everything in its fewest possible elements; and the first and fewest possible parts of a family are master and slave, husband and wife, father and children. We have therefore to consider what each of these three relations is and ought to be: I mean the relation of master and servant, the marriage relation (the conjunction of man and wife has no name of its own), and thirdly, the procreative relation (this also has no proper name). And there is another element of a household, the so-called art of getting wealth, which, according to some, is identical with household management, according to others, a principal part of it; the nature of this art will also have to be considered by us.

Let us first speak of master and slave, looking to the needs of practical life and also seeking to attain some better theory of their relation than exists at present. For some are of opinion that the rule of a master is a science, and that the management of a household, and the mastership of slaves, and the political and royal rule, as I was saying at the outset, are all the same. Others affirm that the rule of a master over slaves is contrary to nature, and that the distinction between slave and freeman exists by law only, and not by nature; and being an interference with nature is therefore unjust.

SECTION 4

Property is a part of the household, and the art of acquiring property is a part of the art of managing the household; for no man can live well, or indeed live at all, unless he be provided with necessaries. And as in the arts which have a definite sphere the workers must have their own proper instruments for the accomplishment of their work, so it is in the management of a household. Now instruments are of various sorts; some are living, others lifeless; in the rudder, the pilot of a ship has a lifeless, in the look-out man, a living instrument; for in the arts the servant is a kind of instrument. Thus, too, a possession is an instrument for maintaining life. And so, in the arrangement of the family, a slave is a living possession, and property a number of such instruments; and the servant is himself an instrument which takes precedence of all other instruments. For if every instrument could accomplish its own work, obeying or anticipating the will of others, like the statues of Daedalus, or the tripods of Hephaestus, which, says the poet, of their own accord entered the assembly of the Gods; if, in like manner, the shuttle would weave and the plectrum touch the lyre without a hand to guide them, chief workmen would not want servants, nor masters slaves.

Here, however, another distinction must be drawn; the instruments commonly so called are instruments of production, whilst a possession is an instrument of action. The shuttle, for example, is not only of use; but something else is made by it, whereas of a garment or of a bed there is only the use. Further, as production and action are different in kind, and both require instruments, the instruments which they employ must likewise differ in kind. But life is action and not production, and therefore the slave is the minister of action. Again, a possession is spoken of as a part is spoken of; for the part is not only a part of something else, but wholly belongs to it; and this is also true of a possession.

The master is only the master of the slave; he does not belong to him, whereas the slave is not only the slave of his master, but wholly belongs to him. Hence we see what is the nature and office of a slave; he who is by nature not his own but another’s man, is by nature a slave; and he may be said to be another’s man who, being a human being, is also a possession. And a possession may be defined as an instrument of action, separable from the possessor.

SECTION 5

But is there any one thus intended by nature to be a slave, and for whom such a condition is expedient and right, or rather is not all slavery a violation of nature?There is no difficulty in answering this question, on grounds both of reason and of fact. For that some should rule and others be ruled is a thing not only necessary, but expedient; from the hour of their birth, some are marked out for subjection, others for rule.

And there are many kinds both of rulers and subjects (and that rule is the better which is exercised over better subjects -- for example, to rule over men is better than to rule over wild beasts; for the work is better which is executed by better workmen, and where one man rules and another is ruled, they may be said to have a work); for in all things which form a composite whole and which are made up of parts, whether continuous or discrete, a distinction between the ruling and the subject element comes to fight. Such a duality exists in living creatures, but not in them only; it originates in the constitution of the universe; even in things which have no life there is a ruling principle, as in a musical mode. But we are wandering from the subject. We will therefore restrict ourselves to the living creature, which, in the first place, consists of soul and body: and of these two, the one is by nature the ruler, and the other the subject.

But then we must look for the intentions of nature in things which retain their nature, and not in things which are corrupted. And therefore we must study the man who is in the most perfect state both of body and soul, for in him we shall see the true relation of the two; although in bad or corrupted natures the body will often appear to rule over the soul, because they are in an evil and unnatural condition. At all events we may firstly observe in living creatures both a despotical and a constitutional rule; for the soul rules the body with a despotical rule, whereas the intellect rules the appetites with a constitutional and royal rule. And it is clear that the rule of the soul over the body, and of the mind and the rational element over the passionate, is natural and expedient; whereas the equality of the two or the rule of the inferior is always hurtful. The same holds good of animals in relation to men; for tame animals have a better nature than wild, and all tame animals are better off when they are ruled by man; for then they are preserved. Again, the male is by nature superior, and the female inferior; and the one rules, and the other is ruled; this principle, of necessity, extends to all mankind.

Where then there is such a difference as that between soul and body, or between men and animals (as in the case of those whose business is to use their body, and who can do nothing better), the lower sort are by nature slaves, and it is better for them as for all inferiors that they should be under the rule of a master. For he who can be, and therefore is, another's and he who participates in rational principle enough to apprehend, but not to have, such a principle, is a slave by nature. Whereas the lower animals cannot even apprehend a principle; they obey their instincts. And indeed the use made of slaves and of tame animals is not very different; for both with their bodies minister to the needs of life. Nature would like to distinguish between the bodies of freemen and slaves, making the one strong for servile labor, the other upright, and although useless for such services, useful for political life in the arts both of war and peace. But the opposite often happens -- that some have the souls and others have the bodies of freemen. And doubtless if men differed from one another in the mere forms of their bodies as much as the statues of the Gods do from men, all would acknowledge that the inferior class should be slaves of the superior. And if this is true of the body, how much more just that a similar distinction should exist in the soul? but the beauty of the body is seen, whereas the beauty of the soul is not seen. It is clear, then, that some men are by nature free, and others slaves, and that for these latter slavery is both expedient and right.

SECTION 6

But that those who take the opposite view have in a certain way right on their side, may be easily seen. For the words slavery and slave are used in two senses. There is a slave or slavery by law as well as by nature. The law of which I speak is a sort of convention -- the law by which whatever is taken in war is supposed to belong to the victors. But this right many jurists impeach, as they would an orator who brought forward an unconstitutional measure: they detest the notion that, because one man has the power of doing violence and is superior in brute strength, another shall be his slave and subject.

Even among philosophers there is a difference of opinion. The origin of the dispute, and what makes the views invade each other’s territory, is as follows: in some sense virtue, when furnished with means, has actually the greatest power of exercising force; and as superior power is only found where there is superior excellence of some kind, power seems to imply virtue, and the dispute to be simply one about justice (for it is due to one party identifying justice with goodwill while the other identifies it with the mere rule of the stronger). If these views are thus set out separately, the other views have no force or plausibility against the view that the superior in virtue ought to rule, or be master. Others, clinging, as they think, simply to a principle of justice (for law and custom are a sort of justice), assume that slavery in accordance with the custom of war is justified by law, but at the same moment they deny this.

For what if the cause of the war be unjust? And again, no one would ever say he is a slave who is unworthy to be a slave. Were this the case, men of the highest rank would be slaves and the children of slaves if they or their parents chance to have been taken captive and sold. Wherefore Hellenes do not like to call Hellenes slaves, but confine the term to barbarians. Yet, in using this language, they really mean the natural slave of whom we spoke at first; for it must be admitted that some are slaves everywhere, others nowhere. The same principle applies to nobility. Hellenes regard themselves as noble everywhere, and not only in their own country, but they deem the barbarians noble only when at home, thereby implying that there are two sorts of nobility and freedom, the one absolute, the other relative. The Helen of Theodectes says:

Who would presume to call me servant who am on both sides sprung from the stem of the Gods?

What does this mean but that they distinguish freedom and slavery, noble and humble birth, by the two principles of good and evil? They think that as men and animals beget men and animals, so from good men a good man springs. But this is what nature, though she may intend it, cannot always accomplish.

We see then that there is some foundation for this difference of opinion, and that all are not either slaves by nature or freemen by nature, and also that there is in some cases a marked distinction between the two classes, rendering it expedient and right for the one to be slaves and the others to be masters: the one practicing obedience, the others exercising the authority and lordship which nature intended them to have.

The abuse of this authority is injurious to both; for the interests of part and whole, of body and soul, are the same, and the slave is a part of the master, a living but separated part of his bodily frame. Hence, where the relation of master and slave between them is natural they are friends and have a common interest, but where it rests merely on law and force the reverse is true.

SECTION 7

The previous remarks are quite enough to show that the rule of a master is not a constitutional rule, and that all the different kinds of rule are not, as some affirm, the same with each other. For there is one rule exercised over subjects who are by nature free, another over subjects who are by nature slaves. The rule of a household is a monarchy, for every house is under one head: whereas constitutional rule is a government of freemen and equals. The master is not called a master because he has science, but because he is of a certain character, and the same remark applies to the slave and the freeman. Still there may be a science for the master and science for the slave. The science of the slave would be such as the man of Syracuse taught, who made money by instructing slaves in their ordinary duties. And such a knowledge may be carried further, so as to include cookery and similar menial arts.

For some duties are of the more necessary, others of the more honorable sort; as the proverb says, 'slave before slave, master before master.’ But all such branches of knowledge are servile. There is likewise a science of the master, which teaches the use of slaves; for the master as such is concerned, not with the acquisition, but with the use of them. Yet this so-called science is not anything great or wonderful; for the master need only know how to order that which the slave must know how to execute. Hence those who are in a position which places them above toil have stewards who attend to their households while they occupy themselves with philosophy or with politics. But the art of acquiring slaves, I mean of justly acquiring them, differs both from the art of the master and the art of the slave, being a species of hunting or war. Enough of the distinction between master and slave.

SECTION 8

Let us now inquire into property generally, and into the art of getting wealth, in accordance with our usual method, for a slave has been shown to be a part of property. The first question is whether the art of getting wealth is the same with the art of managing a household or a part of it, or instrumental to it; and if the last, whether in the way that the art of making shuttles is instrumental to the art of weaving, or in the way that the casting of bronze is instrumental to the art of the statuary, for they are not instrumental in the same way, but the one provides tools and the other material; and by material I mean the substratum out of which any work is made; thus wool is the material of the weaver, bronze of the statuary. Now it is easy to see that the art of household management is not identical with the art of getting wealth, for the one uses the material which the other provides. For the art which uses household stores can be no other than the art of household management.

There is, however, a doubt whether the art of getting wealth is a part of household management or a distinct art. If the getter of wealth has to consider whence wealth and property can be procured, but there are many sorts of property and riches, then are husbandry, and the care and provision of food in general, parts of the wealth-getting art or distinct arts? Again, there are many sorts of food, and therefore there are many kinds of lives both of animals and men; they must all have food, and the differences in their food have made differences in their ways of life. For of beasts, some are gregarious, others are solitary; they live in the way which is best adapted to sustain them, accordingly as they are carnivorous or herbivorous or omnivorous: and their habits are determined for them by nature in such a manner that they may obtain with greater facility the food of their choice. But, as different species have different tastes, the same things are not naturally pleasant to all of them; and therefore the lives of carnivorous or herbivorous animals further differ among themselves. In the lives of men too there is a great difference. The laziest are shepherds, who lead an idle life, and get their subsistence without trouble from tame animals; their flocks having to wander from place to place in search of pasture, they are compelled to follow them, cultivating a sort of living farm.

Others support themselves by hunting, which is of different kinds. Some, for example, are brigands, others, who dwell near lakes or marshes or rivers or a sea in which there are fish, are fishermen, and others live by the pursuit of birds or wild beasts. The greater number obtain a living from the cultivated fruits of the soil. Such are the modes of subsistence which prevail among those whose industry springs up of itself, and whose food is not acquired by exchange and retail trade -- there is the shepherd, the husbandman, the brigand, the fisherman, the hunter. Some gain a comfortable maintenance out of two employments, eking out the deficiencies of one of them by another: thus the life of a shepherd may be combined with that of a brigand, the life of a farmer with that of a hunter. Other modes of life are similarly combined in any way which the needs of men may require. Property, in the sense of a bare livelihood, seems to be given by nature herself to all, both when they are first born, and when they are grown up.

For some animals bring forth, together with their offspring, so much food as will last until they are able to supply themselves; of this the vermiparous or oviparous animals are an instance; and the viviparous animals have up to a certain time a supply of food for their young in themselves, which is called milk. In like manner we may infer that, after the birth of animals, plants exist for their sake, and that the other animals exist for the sake of man, the tame for use and food, the wild, if not all at least the greater part of them, for food, and for the provision of clothing and various instruments. Now if nature makes nothing incomplete, and nothing in vain, the inference must be that she has made all animals for the sake of man. And so, in one point of view, the art of war is a natural art of acquisition, for the art of acquisition includes hunting, an art which we ought to practice against wild beasts, and against men who, though intended by nature to be governed, will not submit; for war of such a kind is naturally just.

Of the art of acquisition then there is one kind which by nature is a part of the management of a household, in so far as the art of household management must either find ready to hand, or itself provide, such things necessary to life, and useful for the community of the family or state, as can be stored. They are the elements of true riches; for the amount of property which is needed for a good life is not unlimited, although Solon in one of his poems says that

No bound to riches has been fixed for man.

But there is a boundary fixed, just as there is in the other arts; for the instruments of any art are never unlimited, either in number or size, and riches may be defined as a number of instruments to be used in a household or in a state. And so we see that there is a natural art of acquisition which is practiced by managers of households and by statesmen, and what is the reason of this.

SECTION 9

There is another variety of the art of acquisition which is commonly and rightly called an art of wealth-getting, and has in fact suggested the notion that riches and property have no limit. Being nearly connected with the preceding, it is often identified with it. But though they are not very different, neither are they the same. The kind already described is given by nature, the other is gained by experience and art.

Let us begin our discussion of the question with the following considerations:

Of everything which we possess there are two uses: both belong to the thing as such, but not in the same manner, for one is the proper, and the other the improper or secondary use of it. For example, a shoe is used for wear, and is used for exchange; both are uses of the shoe. He who gives a shoe in exchange for money or food to him who wants one, does indeed use the shoe as a shoe, but this is not its proper or primary purpose, for a shoe is not made to be an object of barter. The same may be said of all possessions, for the art of exchange extends to all of them, and it arises at first from what is natural, from the circumstance that some have too little, others too much. Hence, we may infer that retail trade is not a natural part of the art of getting wealth; had it been so, men would have ceased to exchange when they had enough.

In the first community, indeed, which is the family, this art is obviously of no use, but it begins to be useful when the society increases. For the members of the family originally had all things in common; later, when the family divided into parts, the parts shared in many things, and different parts in different things, which they had to give in exchange for what they wanted, a kind of barter which is still practiced among barbarous nations who exchange with one another the necessaries of life and nothing more; giving and receiving wine, for example, in exchange for coin, and the like. This sort of barter is not part of the wealth-getting art and is not contrary to nature but is needed for the satisfaction of men’s natural wants. The other or more complex form of exchange grew, as might have been inferred, out of the simpler. When the inhabitants of one country became more dependent on those of another, and they imported what they needed, and exported what they had too much of, money necessarily came into use. For the various necessaries of life are not easily carried about, and hence men agreed to employ in their dealings with each other something which was intrinsically useful and easily applicable to the purposes of life, for example, iron, silver, and the like. Of this the value was at first measured simply by size and weight, but in process of time they put a stamp upon it, to save the trouble of weighing and to mark the value.

When the use of coin had once been discovered, out of the barter of necessary articles arose the other art of wealth getting, namely, retail trade; which was at first probably a simple matter, but became more complicated as soon as men learned by experience whence and by what exchanges the greatest profit might be made. Originating in the use of coin, the art of getting wealth is generally thought to be chiefly concerned with it, and to be the art which produces riches and wealth; having to consider how they may be accumulated. Indeed, riches is assumed by many to be only a quantity of coin, because the arts of getting wealth and retail trade are concerned with coin. Others maintain that coined money is a mere sham, a thing not natural, but conventional only, because, if the users substitute another commodity for it, it is worthless, and because it is not useful as a means to any of the necessities of life, and, indeed, he who is rich in coin may often be in want of necessary food. But how can that be wealth of which a man may have a great abundance and yet perish with hunger, like Midas in the fable, whose insatiable prayer turned everything that was set before him into gold?

Hence men seek after a better notion of riches and of the art of getting wealth than the mere acquisition of coin, and they are right. For natural riches and the natural art of wealth-getting are a different thing; in their true form they are part of the management of a household; whereas retail trade is the art of producing wealth, not in every way, but by exchange. And it is thought to be concerned with coin; for coin is the unit of exchange and the measure or limit of it. And there is no bound to the riches which spring from this art of wealth getting. As in the art of medicine there is no limit to the pursuit of health, and as in the other arts there is no limit to the pursuit of their several ends, for they aim at accomplishing their ends to the uttermost (but of the means there is a limit, for the end is always the limit), so, too, in this art of wealth-getting there is no limit of the end, which is riches of the spurious kind, and the acquisition of wealth. But the art of wealth-getting which consists in household management, on the other hand, has a limit; the unlimited acquisition of wealth is not its business. And, therefore, in one point of view, all riches must have a limit; nevertheless, as a matter of fact, we find the opposite to be the case; for all getters of wealth increase their hoard of coin without limit. The source of the confusion is the near connection between the two kinds of wealth-getting; in either, the instrument is the same, although the use is different, and so they pass into one another; for each is a use of the same property, but with a difference: accumulation is the end in the one case, but there is a further end in the other. Hence some persons are led to believe that getting wealth is the object of household management, and the whole idea of their lives is that they ought either to increase their money without limit, or at any rate not to lose it.

The origin of this disposition in men is that they are intent upon living only, and not upon living well; and, as their desires are unlimited, they also desire that the means of gratifying them should be without limit. Those who do aim at a good life seek the means of obtaining bodily pleasures; and, since the enjoyment of these appears to depend on property, they are absorbed in getting wealth: and so there arises the second species of wealth-getting. For, as their enjoyment is in excess, they seek an art which produces the excess of enjoyment; and, if they are not able to supply their pleasures by the art of getting wealth, they try other arts, using in turn every faculty in a manner contrary to nature. The quality of courage, for example, is not intended to make wealth, but to inspire confidence; neither is this the aim of the general’s or of the physician’s art; but the one aims at victory and the other at health. Nevertheless, some men turn every quality or art into a means of getting wealth; this they conceive to be the end, and to the promotion of the end they think all things must contribute.

Thus, then, we have considered the art of wealth-getting which is unnecessary, and why men want it; and also the necessary art of wealth-getting, which we have seen to be different from the other, and to be a natural part of the art of managing a household, concerned with the provision of food, not, however, like the former kind, unlimited, but having a limit.

SECTION 10

And we have found the answer to our original question, Whether the art of getting wealth is the business of the manager of a household and of the statesman or not their business? viz., that wealth is presupposed by them. For as political science does not make men, but takes them from nature and uses them, so too nature provides them with earth or sea or the like as a source of food. At this stage begins the duty of the manager of a household, who has to order the things which nature supplies; he may be compared to the weaver who has not to make but to use wool, and to know, too, what sort of wool is good and serviceable or bad and unserviceable. Were this otherwise, it would be difficult to see why the art of getting wealth is a part of the management of a household and the art of medicine not; for surely the members of a household must have health just as they must have life or any other necessary. The answer is that as from one point of view the master of the house and the ruler of the state have to consider about health, from another point of view not they but the physician; so in one way the art of household management, in another way the subordinate art, has to consider about wealth. But, strictly speaking, as I have already said, the means of life must be provided beforehand by nature; for the business of nature is to furnish food to that which is born, and the food of the offspring is always what remains over of that from which it is produced. Wherefore the art of getting wealth out of fruits and animals is always natural.

There are two sorts of wealth-getting, as I have said; one is a part of household management, the other is retail trade: the former necessary and honorable, while that which consists in exchange is justly censured; for it is unnatural, and a mode by which men gain from one another. The most hated sort, and with the greatest reason, is usury, which makes a gain out of money itself, and not from the natural object of it. For money was intended to be used in exchange, but not to increase at interest. And this term interest, which means the birth of money from money, is applied to the breeding of money because the offspring resembles the parent. Wherefore of an modes of getting wealth this is the most unnatural.

SECTION 11

Enough has been said about the theory of wealth-getting; we will now proceed to the practical part. The discussion of such matters is not unworthy of philosophy, but to be engaged in them practically is illiberal and irksome. The useful parts of wealth-getting are, first, the knowledge of livestock -- which are most profitable, and where, and how -- as, for example, what sort of horses or sheep or oxen or any other animals are most likely to give a return. A man ought to know which of these pay better than others, and which pay best in particular places, for some do better in one place and some in another. Secondly, husbandry, which may be either tillage or planting, and the keeping of bees and of fish, or fowl, or of any animals which may be useful to man. These are the divisions of the true or proper art of wealth-getting and come first.

Of the other, which consists in exchange, the first and most important division is commerce (of which there are three kinds -- the provision of a ship, the conveyance of goods, exposure for sale -- these again differing as they are safer or more profitable), the second is usury, the third, service for hire -- of this, one kind is employed in the mechanical arts, the other in unskilled and bodily labor. There is still a third sort of wealth getting intermediate between this and the first or natural mode which is partly natural, but is also concerned with exchange, viz., the industries that make their profit from the earth, and from things growing from the earth which, although they bear no fruit, are nevertheless profitable; for example, the cutting of timber and all mining. The art of mining, by which minerals are obtained, itself has many branches, for there are various kinds of things dug out of the earth. Of the several divisions of wealth-getting I now speak generally; a minute consideration of them might be useful in practice, but it would be tiresome to dwell upon them at greater length now.