The Life of Thomas Telford, Civil Engineer E-Book

Samuel Smiles

• Herausgeber: Seltzer Books
• Kategorie: Sachliteratur, Reportagen, Biografien
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Seitenzahl: 521

Beschreibung

According to Wikipedia: "Thomas Telford (1757–1834) was a Scottish civil engineer, architect and stonemason, and a noted road, bridge and canal builder. After establishing himself as an engineer of road and canal projects in Shropshire, he designed numerous infrastructure projects in his native Scotland, as well as harbours and tunnels. Such was his reputation as a prolific designer of highways and related bridges, he was dubbed The Colossus of Roads, and, reflecting his command of all types of civil engineering in the early 19th century, he was elected as the first President of the Institution of Civil Engineers, a post he retained for 14 years until his death.... Samuel Smiles (23 December 1812 – 16 April 1904), was a Scottish author and reformer. ... Smiles is best known today as the writer of books extolling virtues of self help, and biographies lauding the achievements of "heroic" engineers."

Leseprobe

THE LIFE OF THOMAS TELFORD CIVIL ENGINEER WITH AN INTRODUCTORY HISTORY OF ROADS AND TRAVELLING IN GREAT BRITIAN BY SAMUEL SMILES

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Books about Roads and Highways, available from Seltzer Books:

Historic Highways of America multi-volume series by Hulbert

Paths of the Mound-Building Indians

Washington's Road

Braddock's Road

The Old Glade Road

Boone's Wilderness Road

Portage Paths

Military Roads of the Mississippi Basin

The Waterways of Westward Expansion

The Cumberland Road

Pioneer Roads and Experiences of Travelers, volumes 1 and 2

The Great American Canals

Main-Travelled Roads by Garland

Other Main-Travelled Roads by Garland

Roads of Destiny by O. Henry

The Road by Jack London

The Golden Road by Montgomery

The Life of Thomas Telford, Civil Engineer by Smiles

The Underground Rail Road by Still

The Road to Oz by Baum

 "Let us travel, and wherever we find no facility for

 travelling from a city to a town, from a village to a

 hamlet, we may pronounce the people to be barbarous"

 --Abbe Raynal

"The opening up of the internal communications of a

country is undoubtedly the first and most important

element of its growth in commerce and civilization"

--Richard Cobden

Preface

EARLY ROADS AND MODES OF TRAVELLING

CHAPTER I.  Old Roads

Roads as agents of civilization

Their important uses

Ancient British trackways or ridgeways

The Romans and their roads in Britain

Decay of the Roman roads

Early legislation relating to highways

Roads near London

The Weald of Kent

Great Western roads

Hollow ways or lanes

Roads on Dartmoor

in Sussex

at Kensington

CHAPTER II.  Early Modes of Conveyance

Riding on horseback the ancient mode of traveling

Shakespear's description of travelling in 'Henry IV.'

Queen Elizabeth and her coach

Introduction of coaches or waggons

Painful journeys by coach

Carriers in reign of James I

Great north Road in reign of Charles I

Mace's description of roads and travellers stage-coaches introduced

Sobriere's account of the Dover stage-coach

Thoresby's account of stage-coaches and travelling

Roads and travelling in North Wales

Proposal to suppres stage-coaches

Tediousness and discomforts of travelling by coach

Pennant's account of the Chester and London stage

Travelling on horseback preferred

The night coach

Highway robbers and foot-pads

Methods of transport of the merchandize pack-horse convoys

Traffic between lancashire and Yorkshire

Signs of the pack-horse

CHAPTER III.  Influence of Roads on Society

Restricted intercourse between districts

Local dialects and customs thereby preserved

Camden's fear of travelling into the barbarous regions of the North

Rev. Mr Brome's travels in England

Old Leisure

Imperfect postal communication

Hawkers and pedlars

Laying in stores for winter

Household occupations

Great fairs of ancient times

Local fairs

Fair on Dartmoor

Primitive manners of Dartmoor District

CHAPTER IV.  Roads in Scotland last centuary

Poverty of Scotland

Backwardness of agriculture

Idleness of the people

Andrew Flecher's description of Scotland

Slavery of colliers and salters

Improvements in agriculture opposed

Low wages of the labouring population

State of the Lothians and Ayrshire

Wretched states of the roads

Difficulty of communication between districts

Coach started between Edinburgh and Glasgow

Carrier's perils between Edinburgh and Selkirk

Dangers of travelling in Galloway

Lawlessness of the Highlands

Picking and lifting of cattle

Ferocity of population on the Highland Border

Ancient civilization of Scotland

CHAPTER V.  Travelling in England last century

Progress made in travelling by coach

Fast coaches established

Bad state of the roads

Foreigners' accounts of travelling in England

Herr Moritz's journey by the basket coach

Arthur Young's description of English roads

Palmer's mail coaches introduced

The first 'Turnpike' roads

Turnpike riots

The  rebellion of 1745

Passing of numerous highway Acts

Road-making thought beneath the dignity of the engineer

CHAPTER VI.  John Metcalf, road-maker.

Metcalf's boyhood

His blindness

His boldness

Becomes a Musician

His travels

Journey on foot from London to Harrogate

Joins the army as musician in the rebellion of 1745

Adventures in Scotland

Becomes travelling merchant and horse dealer

Begins road-making

Builds a bridge

His extensive road contracts in Yorkshire and Lancashire

Manner of aking his surveys

His skill in road-making

His last road--his death

Roads in the south of England

Want of roads on Lincoln Heath

Land lighthouses

Dunstan pillar

Rapid improvement in the roads

Application of steam

Sydney Smith on improved facilities of communication

THE LIFE OF THOMAS TELFORD

CHAPTER I.  Eskdale.

Eskdale

Langholm

Former lawlessness of the Border population

Jonnie armstrong

Border energy

Westerkirk

Telford's birthplace

Glendinning

Valley of the Meggat

The 'unblameable shepherd'

Telford's mother

Early years

Laughing Tam

Put to school

His school-fellows

CHAPTER II.  Langholm--Telford a Stonemason

Telford apprenticed to a stonemason

Runs away

Re-apprenticed to a mason at Langholm

Building operations in the district

Miss Pasley lends books to young Telford

Attempt to write poetry

Becomes village letter-writer

Works as a journeyman mason

Employed on Langholm Bridge

Manse of Westerkirk

Poem of 'Eskdale'

Hews headstones and doorheads

Works as a mason at Edinburgh

Study of architecture

Revisits Eskdale

His ride to London

CHAPTER III.  Arrives in London

Telford a working man in London

Obtains employment as a mason at

Somerset House

Correspondence with Eskdale friends

Observations on his fellow-workman

Propses to begin business, but wants money

Mr. Pulteney

Becomes foreman of builders at Portsmouth Dockyard

Continues to write poetry

Employment of his time

Prints letters to his mother

CHAPTER IV.  Becomes Surveyor for the County of Salop

Superintends repairs of Shrewsbury Castle

Appointed Surveyor for County of Salop

Superintends erection of new gaol

Interview with John Howard

His studies in science and literature

Poetical exercises

Fall of St. Chad's Church, Shrewsburg

Discovery of the Roman city of Uriconium

Overseer of felons

Mrs. Jordan at Shrewsbury

Telford's indifference to music

Politics, Paine's 'Rights of Man'

Reprints his poem of 'Eskdale'

CHAPTER V.  Telford's First Employment as an Engineer

Advantages of mechanical training to an engineer

Erects Montford Bridge

Erects St. Mary Magdalen Church, Bridgenorth

Telford's design

Architectural tour

Bath

Studies in British Museum

Oxford

Birmingham

Study of architecture

Appointed Engineer to the Ellesmere Canal

CHAPTER VI.  The Ellesmere Canal

Course of the Ellesmire Canal

Success of the early canals

The Act obtained and working survey made

Chirk Aqueduct

Pont-Cysylltau Aqueduct,

Telford's hollow walls

His cast iron trough at Pont-Cysylltau

The canal works completed

Revists Eskdale

Early impressions corrected

Tours in Wales

Conduct of Ellesmere Canal navigation

His literary studies and compositions

CHAPTER VII.  Iron and other Bridges

Use of iron in bridge-building

Design of a Lyons architect

First iron bridge erected at Coalbrookdale

Tom paine's iron bridge

Wear iron bridge, Sunderland

Telford's iron bridge at Buildwas

His iron lock-gates and turn-bridges

Projects a one-arched bridge of iron over the Thames

Bewdley stone bridge

Tougueland Bridge

Extension of Telford's engineering buisness

Literary friendships

Thomas Campbell

Miscellaneous reading

CHAPTER VIII.  Higland Roads and Bridges

Progress of Scotch agriculture

Romilly's account

State of the Highlands

Want of roads

Use of the Cas-chrom

Emigration

Telford's survey of Scotland

Lord Cockburn's account of the difficulties of travelling

the North Circuit

Parliamentary Commission of Highland Roads and Bridges appointed

Dunkeld Bridge built

920 miles of new roads constucted

Craigellachie Bridge

Travelling facilitated

Agriculture improved

Moral results of Telford's Highland contracts

Rapid progress of the Lowlands

Results of parish schools

CHAPTER IX.  Telford's Scotch Harbours

Highland harbours

Wick and Pulteney Town

Columnar pier work

Peterhead Harbour

Frazerburgh Harbour

Bannf Harbour

Old history of Aberdeen, its witch-burning and slave-trading

Improvements of its harbour

Telford's design carried out

Dundee Harbour

CHAPTER X.  Caledonian and other Canals

Canal projected through the Great Glen of the Highlands

Survey by James Watt

Survey by Telford

Tide-basin at Corpach

Neptune's Staircase

Dock at Clachnaharry

The chain of lochs

Construction of the works

Commercial failure of the canal

Telford's disappointment

Glasgow and Ardrossan Canal

Weaver Navigation

Gotha Canal, Sweden

Gloucester and Berkeley, and other canals

Harecastle Tunnel

Birmingham Canal

Macclesfield Canal

Birmingham and Liverpool Junction Canal

Telford's pride in his canals

CHAPTER XI.  Telford as a road-maker

Increase of road-traffic

Improvement of the main routes between the principal towns

Carlisle and Glasgow road

Telford's principles of road-construction

Macadam

Cartland Crags Bridge

Improvement of the London and Edinburgh post road

Communications with Ireland

Wretched state of the Welsh roads

Telford's survey of the Shrewsbury and Holyhead road

Its construction

Roads and railways

London and Shrewsbury post road

Roads near London

Coast road, North Wales

CHAPTER XII.  The Menai and Conway Bridges

Bridges projected over the Menai Straits

Telford's designs

Ingenious plan of suspended centering

Design of a suspension bridge over the Mersey at Runcorn

Design of suspension bridge at Menai

The works begun

The main piers

The suspension chains

Hoisting of the first main chain

Progress of the works to completion

The bridge formally opened

Conway Suspension Bridge

CHAPTER XIII.  Docks, Drainage, and Bridges

Resume of English engineering

General increase in trade and poulation

The Thames

St. Katherine's Docks

Tewkesburg Bridge

Gloucester Bridge

Dean Bridge, Edinburgh

Glasgow Bridge

Telford's works of drainage in the Fens

The North Level

The Nene Outfall

Effects of Fen drainage

CHAPTER XIV.  Southey's tour in the highlands

Southey sets out to visit the Highlands in Telford's company

Works at Dundee Harbour

Bervie Harbour

Mitchell and Gibbs

Aberdeen Harbour

Approach to Banff

Cullen Harbour

The Forres road

Beauly Bridge

Bonar Bridge

Fleet Mound

Southey's description of the Caledonian Canal and works

John Mitchell

Takes leave of Telford

Results of Highland road-making

CHAPTER XV.  Mr Telford's later years--His death and character

Telford's residence in London

Leaves the Salopian

First President of Institute of Civil Engineers

Consulted by foreign Governments as to roads and bridges

His views on railways

Failure of health

Consulted as to Dover Harbour

Illness and death

His character

His friends

Integrity

Views on money-making

Benevolence

Patriotism

His Will

Libraries in Eskdale supported by his bequests

PREFACE

The present is a revised and in some respects enlarged edition of the 'Life of Telford,' originally published in the 'Lives of the Engineers,' to which is prefixed an account of the early roads and modes of travelling in Britain.

From this volume, read in connection with the Lives of George and Robert Stephenson, in which the origin and extension of Railways is described, an idea may be formed of the extraordinary progress which has been made in opening up the internal communications of this  country during the last century.

Among the principal works executed by Telford in the course of his life, were the great highways constructed by him in North Wales and the Scotch Highlands, through districts formerly almost inaccessible, but which are now as easily traversed as any English county.

By means of these roads, and the facilities afforded by railways, the many are now enabled to visit with ease and comfort magnificent mountain scenery, which before was only the costly privilege of the few; at the same time that their construction has exercised a most beneficial influence on the population of the districts themselves.

The Highland roads, which were constructed with the active assistance of the Government, and were maintained partly at the public expense until within the last few years, had the effect of stimulating industry, improving agriculture, and converting a turbulent because unemployed population into one of the most loyal and well-conditioned in the empire;-- the policy thus adopted with reference to the Highlands, and the beneficial results which have flowed from it, affording the strongest encouragement to Government in dealing in like manner with the internal communications of Ireland.

While the construction of the Highland roads was in progress, the late Robert Southey, poet laureate, visited the Highlands in company with his friend the engineer, and left on record an interesting account of his visit, in a, manuscript now in the possession of Robert Rawlinson, C.E., to whom we are indebted for the extracts which are made from it in the present volume.

London, October, 1867.

EARLY ROADS AND MODES OF TRAVELLING.

CHAPTER I.  OLD ROADS.

Roads have in all times been among the most influential agencies of society; and the makers of them, by enabling men readily to communicate with each other, have properly been regarded as among the most effective pioneers of civilization.

Roads are literally the pathways not only of industry, but of social and national intercourse.  Wherever a line of communication between men is formed, it renders commerce practicable; and, wherever commerce penetrates, it creates a civilization and leaves a history.

Roads place the city and the town in connection with the village and the farm, open up markets for field produce, and provide outlets for manufactures.  They enable the natural resources of a country to be developed, facilitate travelling and intercourse, break down local jealousies, and in all ways tend to bind together society and bring out fully that healthy spirit of industry which is the life and soul of every nation.

The road is so necessary an instrument of social wellbeing, that in every new colony it is one of the first things thought of. First roads, then commerce, institutions, schools, churches, and newspapers.  The new country, as well as the old, can only be effectually "opened up," as the common phrase is, by roads and until these are made, it is virtually closed.

Freedom itself cannot exist without free communication,--every limitation of movement on the part of the members of society amounting to a positive abridgment of their personal liberty. Hence roads, canals, and railways, by providing the greatest possible facilities for locomotion and information, are essential for the freedom of all classes, of the poorest as well as the richest.

By bringing the ends of a kingdom together, they reduce the inequalities of fortune and station, and, by equalizing the price of commodities, to that extent they render them accessible to all. Without their assistance, the concentrated populations of our large towns could neither be clothed nor fed; but by their instrumentality an immense range of country is brought as it were to their very doors, and the sustenance and employment of large masses of people become comparatively easy.

In the raw materials required for food, for manufactures, and for domestic purposes, the cost of transport necessarily forms a considerable item; and it is clear that the more this cost can be reduced by facilities of communication, the cheaper these articles become, and the more they are multiplied and enter into the consumption of the community at large.

Let any one imagine what would be the effect of closing the roads, railways, and canals of England.  The country would be brought to a dead lock, employment would be restricted in all directions, and a large proportion of the inhabitants concentrated in the large towns must at certain seasons inevitably perish of cold and hunger.

In the earlier periods of English history, roads were of comparatively less consequence.  While the population was thin and scattered, and men lived by hunting and pastoral pursuits, the track across the down, the heath, and the moor, sufficiently answered their purpose. Yet even in those districts unencumbered with wood, where the first settlements were made--as on the downs of Wiltshire, the moors of Devonshire, and the wolds of Yorkshire--stone tracks were laid down by the tribes between one village and another.  We have given here, a representation of one of those ancient trackways still existing in the neighbourhood of Whitby, in Yorkshire;

[Image] Ancient Causeway, near Whitby.

and there are many of the same description to be met with in other parts of England.  In some districts they are called trackways or ridgeways, being narrow causeways usually following the natural ridge of the country, and probably serving in early times as local boundaries.  On Dartmoor they are constructed of stone blocks, irregularly laid down on the surface of the ground, forming a rude causeway of about five or six feet wide.

The Romans, with many other arts, first brought into England the art of road-making.  They thoroughly understood the value of good roads, regarding them as the essential means for the maintenance of their empire in the first instance, and of social prosperity in the next. It was their roads, as well as their legions, that made them masters of the world; and the pickaxe, not less than the sword, was the ensign of their dominion.  Wherever they went, they opened up the communications of the countries they subdued, and the roads which they made were among the best of their kind.  They were skilfully laid out and solidly constructed.  For centuries after the Romans left England, their roads continued to be the main highways of internal communication, and their remains are to this day to be traced in many parts of the country.   Settlements were made and towns sprang up along the old "streets;" and the numerous Stretfords, Stratfords, and towns ending' in "le-street" --as Ardwick-le-street, in Yorkshire, and Chester-le-street, in Durham--mostly mark the direction of these ancient lines of road. There are also numerous Stanfords, which were so called because they bordered the raised military roadways of the Romans, which ran direct between their stations.

The last-mentioned peculiarity of the roads constructed by the Romans, must have struck many observers.  Level does not seem to have been of consequence, compared with directness.  This peculiarity is supposed to have originated in an imperfect knowledge of mechanics; for the Romans do not appear to have been acquainted with the moveable joint in wheeled carriages. The carriage-body rested solid upon the axles, which in four-wheeled vehicles were rigidly parallel with each other.  Being unable readily to turn a bend in the road, it has been concluded that for this reason all the great Roman highways were constructed in as straight lines as possible.

On the departure of the Romans from Britain, most of the roads constructed by them were allowed to fall into decay, on which the forest and the waste gradually resumed their dominion over them, and the highways of England became about the worst in Europe. We find, however, that numerous attempts were made in early times to preserve the ancient ways and enable a communication to be maintained between the metropolis and the rest of the country, as well as between one  market town and another.

The state of the highways may be inferred from the character of the legislation applying to them.  One of the first laws on the subject was passed in 1285, directing that all bushes and trees along the roads leading from one market to another should be cut down for two hundred feet on either side, to prevent robbers lurking therein;*[1] but nothing was proposed for amending the condition of the ways themselves.  In 1346, Edward III. authorised the first toll to be levied for the repair of the roads leading from St. Giles's-in-the-Fields to the village of Charing (now Charing Cross), and from the same quarter to near Temple Bar (down Drury Lane), as well as the highway then called Perpoole (now Gray's Inn Lane). The footway at the entrance of Temple Bar was interrupted by thickets and bushes, and in wet weather was almost impassable.  The roads further west were so bad that when the sovereign went to Parliament faggots were thrown into the ruts in King-street, Westminster, to enable the royal cavalcade to pass along.

In Henry VIII.'s reign, several remarkable statutes were passed relating to certain worn-out and impracticable roads in Sussex and the Weald of Kent.  From the earliest of these, it would appear that when the old roads were found too deep and miry to be passed, they were merely abandoned and new tracks struck out.  After describing "many of the wayes in the wealds as so depe and noyous by wearyng and course of water and other occasions that people cannot have their carriages or passages by horses uppon or by the same but to their great paynes, perill and jeopardie," the Act provided that owners of land might, with the consent of two justices and twelve discreet men of the hundred, lay out new roads and close up the old ones.  Another Act passed in the same reign, related to the repairs of bridges and of the highways at the ends of bridges.

But as these measures were for the most part merely permissive, they could have had but little practical effect in improving the communications of the kingdom.  In the reign of Philip and Mary (in 1555), an Act was passed providing that each parish should elect two surveyors of highways to see to the maintenance of their repairs by  compulsory labour, the preamble reciting that "highwaies are now both verie noisome and tedious to travell in, and dangerous to all  passengers and cariages;" and to this day parish and cross roads are maintained on the principle of Mary's Act, though the compulsory labour has since been commuted into a compulsory tax.

In the reigns of Elizabeth and James, other road Acts were passed; but, from the statements of contemporary writers, it would appear that they were followed by very little substantial progress, and travelling continued to be attended with many difficulties.  Even in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, the highways were in certain seasons scarcely passable.  The great Western road into London was especially bad, and about Knightsbridge, in winter, the traveller had to wade through deep mud.  Wyatt's men entered the city by this approach in the rebellion of 1554, and were called the "draggle-tails" because of their wretched plight.  The ways were equally bad as far as Windsor, which, in the reign of Elizabeth, is described by Pote, in his history of that town, as being "not much past half a day's journeye removed from the flourishing citie of London."

At a greater distance from the metropolis, the roads were still worse.  They were in many cases but rude tracks across heaths and commons, as furrowed with deep ruts as ploughed fields; and in winter to pass along one of them was like travelling in a ditch. The attempts made by the adjoining occupiers to mend them, were for the most part confined to throwing large stones into the bigger holes to fill them up.  It was easier to allow new tracks to be made than to mend the old ones.  The land of the country was still mostly unenclosed, and it was possible, in fine weather, to get from place to place, in one way or another, with the help of a guide. In the absence of bridges, guides were necessary to point out the safest fords as well as to pick out the least miry tracks. The most frequented lines of road were struck out from time to time by the drivers of pack-horses, who, to avoid the bogs and sloughs, were usually careful to keep along the higher grounds; but, to prevent those horsemen who departed from the beaten track being swallowed up in quagmires, beacons were erected to warn them against the more dangerous places.*[2]

In some of the older-settled districts of England, the old roads are still to be traced in the hollow Ways or Lanes, which are to be met with, in some places, eight and ten feet deep.  They were horse-tracks in summer, and rivulets in winter.  By dint of weather and travel, the earth was gradually worn into these deep furrows, many of which, in Wilts, Somerset, and Devon, represent the tracks of roads as old as, if not older than, the Conquest. When the ridgeways of the earliest settlers on Dartmoor, above alluded to, were abandoned, the tracks were formed through the valleys, but the new roads were no better than the old ones. They were narrow and deep, fitted only for a horse passing along laden with its crooks, as so graphically described in the ballad of "The Devonshire Lane."*[3]

Similar roads existed until recently in the immediate neighbourhood of Birmingham, now the centre of an immense traffic.  The sandy soil was sawn through, as it were, by generation after generation of human feet, and by packhorses, helped by the rains, until in some places the tracks were as much as from twelve to fourteen yards deep; one of these, partly filled up, retaining to this day the name of Holloway Head.  In the neighbourhood of London there was also a Hollow way, which now gives its name to a populous metropolitan parish.  Hagbush Lane was another of such roads. Before the formation of the Great North Road, it was one of the principal bridle-paths leading from London to the northern parts of England; but it was so narrow as barely to afford passage for more than a single horseman, and so deep that the rider's head was beneath the level of the ground on either side.

The roads of Sussex long preserved an infamous notoriety. Chancellor Cowper, when a barrister on circuit, wrote to his wife in 1690, that "the Sussex ways are bad and ruinous beyond imagination. I vow 'tis melancholy consideration that mankind will in habit such a heap of dirt for a poor livelihood.  The country is a sink of about fourteen miles broad, which receives all the water that falls from two long ranges of hills on both sides of it, and not being furnished with convenient draining, is kept moist and soft by the water till the middle of a dry summer, which is only able to make it tolerable to ride for a short time."

It was almost as difficult for old persons to get to church in Sussex during winter as it was in the Lincoln Fens, where they were rowed thither in boats.  Fuller saw an old lady being drawn to church in her own coach by the aid of six oxen.  The Sussex roads were indeed so bad as to pass into a by-word.  A contemporary writer says, that in travelling a slough of extraordinary miryness, it used to be called "the Sussex bit of the road;" and he satirically alleged that the reason why the Sussex girls were so long-limbed was because of the tenacity of the mud in that county; the practice of pulling the foot out of it "by the strength of the ancle" tending to stretch the muscle and lengthen the bone!*[4] But the roads in the immediate neighbourhood of London long continued almost as bad as those in Sussex.  Thus, when the poet Cowley retired to Chertsey, in 1665, he wrote to his friend Sprat to visit him, and, by way of encouragement, told him that he might sleep the first night at Hampton town; thus occupying; two days in the performance of a journey of twenty-two miles in the immediate neighbourhood of the metropolis.  As late as 1736 we find Lord Hervey, writing from Kensington, complaining that "the road between this place and London is grown so infamously bad that we live here in the same solitude as we would do if cast on a rock in the middle of the ocean; and all the Londoners tell us that there is between them and us an impassable gulf of mud."

Nor was the mud any respecter of persons; for we are informed that the carriage of Queen Caroline could not, in bad weather, be dragged from St. James's Palace to Kensington in less than two hours, and occasionally the royal coach stuck fast in a rut, or was even capsized in the mud.  About the same time, the streets of London themselves were little better, the kennel being still permitted to flow in the middle of the road, which was paved with round stones,--flag-stones for the convenience of pedestrians being as yet unknown.  In short, the streets in the towns and the roads in the country were alike rude and wretched,--indicating a degree of social stagnation and discomfort which it is now difficult to estimate, and almost impossible to describe.

 Footnotes for chapter I

*[1] Brunetto Latini, the tutor of Dante, describes a journey made by him from London to Oxford about the end of the thirteenth century, resting by the way at Shirburn Castle.  He says, "Our journey from London to Oxford was, with some difficulty and danger, made in two days; for the roads are bad, and we had to climb hills of hazardous ascent, and which to descend are equally perilous.  We passed through many woods, considered here as dangerous places, as they are infested with robbers, which indeed is the case with most of the roads in England.  This is a circumstance connived at by the neighbouring barons, on consideration of sharing in the booty, and of these robbers serving as their protectors on all occasions, personally, and with the whole strength of their band.  However, as our company was numerous, we had less to fear.  Accordingly, we arrived the first night at Shirburn Castle, in the neighbourhood of Watlington, under the chain of hills over which we passed at Stokenchurch."  This passage is given in Mr. Edward's work on  'Libraries' (p. 328), as supplied to him by Lady Macclesfield.

*[2] See Ogilby's 'Britannia Depicta,' the traveller's ordinary guidebook between 1675 and 1717, as Bradshaw's Railway Time-book is now.  The Grand Duke Cosmo, in his 'Travels in England in 1669,' speaks of the country between Northampton and Oxford as for the most part unenclosed and uncultivated, abounding in weeds.  From Ogilby's fourth edition, published in 1749, it appears that the roads in the midland and northern districts of England were still, for the most part, entirely unenclosed.

*[3] This ballad is so descriptive of the old roads of the south-west of England that we are tempted to quote it at length. It was written by the Rev. John Marriott, sometime vicar of Broadclist, Devon; and Mr. Rowe, vicar of Crediton, says, in his 'Perambulation of Dartmoor,' that he can readily imagine the identical lane near Broadclist, leading towards Poltemore, which might have sat for the portrait.

    In a Devonshire lane, as I trotted along     T'other day, much in want of a subject for song,     Thinks I to myself, half-inspired by the rain,     Sure marriage is much like a Devonshire lane.

    In the first place 'tis long, and when once you are in it,     It holds you as fast as a cage does a linnet;     For howe'er rough and dirty the road may be found,     Drive forward you must, there is no turning round.

    But tho' 'tis so long, it is not very wide,     For two are the most that together can ride;     And e'en then, 'tis a chance but they get in a pother,     And jostle and cross and run foul of each other.

    Oft poverty meets them with mendicant looks,     And care pushes by them with dirt-laden crooks;     And strife's grazing wheels try between them to pass,     And stubbornness blocks up the way on her ass,

    Then the banks are so high, to the left hand and right,     That they shut up the beauties around them from sight;     And hence, you'll allow, 'tis an inference plain,     That marriage is just like a Devonshire lane.

    But thinks I, too, these banks, within which we are pent,     With bud, blossom, and berry, are richly besprent;     And the conjugal fence, which forbids us to roam,     Looks lovely, when deck'd with the comforts of home.

    In the rock's gloomy crevice the bright holly grows;     The ivy waves fresh o'er the withering rose,     And the ever-green love of a virtuous wife     Soothes the roughness of care, cheers the winter of life.

    Then long be the journey, and narrow the way,     I'll rejoice that I've seldom a turnpike to pay;     And whate'er others say, be the last to complain,     Though marriage is just like a Devonshire lane.

*[4] Iter Sussexiense.' By Dr. John Burton.

 CHAPTER II. EARLY MODES OF CONVEYANCE.

Such being the ancient state of the roads, the only practicable modes of travelling were on foot and on horseback.  The poor walked and the rich rode.  Kings rode and Queens rode.  Judges rode circuit in jack-boots.  Gentlemen rode and robbers rode.  The Bar sometimes walked and sometimes rode.  Chaucer's ride to Canterbury will be remembered as long as the English language lasts.  Hooker rode to London on a hard-paced nag, that he might be in time to preach his first sermon at St. Paul's.  Ladies rode on pillions, holding on by the gentleman or the serving-man mounted before.

Shakespeare incidentally describes the ancient style of travelling among the humbler classes in his 'Henry IV.'*[1]

The Party, afterwards set upon by Falstaff and his companions, bound from Rochester to London, were up by two in the morning, expecting to perform the journey of thirty miles by close of day, and to get to town "in time to go to bed with a candle."  Two are carriers, one of whom has "a gammon of bacon and two razes of ginger, to be delivered as far as Charing Cross;" the other has his panniers full of turkeys.  There is also a franklin of Kent, and another, "a kind of auditor," probably a tax-collector, with several more, forming in all a company of eight or ten, who travel together for mutual protection.  Their robbery on Gad's Hill, as painted by Shakespeare, is but a picture, by no means exaggerated, of the adventures and dangers of the road at the time of which he wrote.

Distinguished personages sometimes rode in horse-litters; but riding on horseback was generally preferred.  Queen Elizabeth made most of her journeys in this way,*[2] and when she went into the City she rode on a pillion behind her Lord Chancellor.  The Queen, however, was at length provided with a coach, which must have been a very remarkable machine.  This royal vehicle is said to have been one of the first coaches used in England, and it was introduced by the Queen's own coachman, one Boomen, a Dutchman.  It was little better than a cart without springs, the body resting solid upon the axles.  Taking the bad roads and ill-paved streets into account, it must have been an excessively painful means of conveyance. At one of the first audiences which the Queen gave to the French ambassador in 1568, she feelingly described to him "the aching pains she was suffering in consequence of having been knocked about in a coach which had been driven a little too fast, only a few days before."*[3]

Such coaches were at first only used on state occasions. The roads, even in the immediate neighbourhood of London, were so bad and so narrow that the vehicles could not be taken into the country. But, as the roads became improved, the fashion of using them spread.  When the aristocracy removed from the City to the western parts of the metropolis, they could be better accommodated, and in course of time they became gradually adopted.  They were still, however, neither more nor less than waggons, and, indeed, were called by that name; but wherever they went they excited great wonder.  It is related of "that valyant knyght Sir Harry Sidney," that on a certain day in the year 1583 he entered Shrewsbury in his waggon, "with his Trompeter blowynge, verey joyfull to behold and see."*[4]

From this time the use of coaches gradually spread, more particularly amongst the nobility, superseding the horse-litters which had till then been used for the conveyance of ladies and others unable to bear the fatigue of riding on horseback. The first carriages were heavy and lumbering: and upon the execrable roads of the time they went pitching over the stones and into the ruts, with the pole dipping and rising like a ship in a rolling sea. That they had no springs, is clear enough from the statement of Taylor, the water-poet--who deplored the introduction of carriages as a national calamity--that in the paved streets of London men and women were "tossed, tumbled, rumbled, and jumbled about in them." Although the road from London to Dover, along the old Roman Watling-street, was then one of the best in England, the French household of Queen Henrietta, when they were sent forth from the palace of Charles I., occupied four tedious days before they reached Dover.

But it was only a few of the main roads leading from the metropolis that were practicable for coaches; and on the occasion of a royal progress, or the visit of a lord-lieutenant, there was a general turn out of labourers and masons to mend the ways and render the bridges at least temporarily secure.  Of one of Queen Elizabeth's journeys it is said:-- "It was marvellous for ease and expedition, for such is the perfect evenness of the new highway that Her Majesty left the coach only once, while the hinds and the folk of a base sort lifted it on with their poles."

Sussex long continued impracticable for coach travelling at certain seasons.  As late as 1708, Prince George of Denmark had the greatest difficulty in making his way to Petworth to meet Charles VI. of Spain. "The last nine miles of the way," says the reporter, "cost us six hours to conquer them."  One of the couriers in attendance complained that during fourteen hours he never once alighted, except when the coach overturned, or stuck in the mud.

When the judges, usually old men and bad riders, took to going the circuit in their coaches, juries were often kept waiting until their lordships could be dug out of a bog or hauled out of a slough by the aid of plough-horses.  In the seventeenth century, scarcely a Quarter Session passed without presentments from the grand jury against certain districts on account of the bad state of the roads, and many were the fines which the judges imposed upon them as a set-off against their bruises and other damages while on circuit.

For a long time the roads continued barely practicable for wheeled vehicles of the rudest sort, though Fynes Morison (writing in the time of James I.) gives an account of "carryers, who have long covered waggons, in which they carry passengers from place to place; but this kind of journeying," he says, "is so tedious, by reason they must take waggon very early and come very late to their innes, that none but women and people of inferior condition travel in this sort."

[Image] The Old Stage Waggon.

The waggons of which Morison wrote, made only from ten to fifteen miles in a long summer's day; that is, supposing them not to have broken down by pitching over the boulders laid along the road, or stuck fast in a quagmire, when they had to wait for the arrival of the next team of horses to help to drag them out.  The waggon, however, continued to be adopted as a popular mode of travelling until late in the eighteenth century; and Hogarth's picture illustrating the practice will be remembered, of the cassocked parson on his lean horse, attending his daughter newly alighted from the York waggon.

A curious description of the state of the Great North Road, in the time of Charles II., is to be found in a tract published in 1675 by Thomas Mace, one of the clerks of Trinity College, Cambridge. The writer there addressed himself to the King, partly in prose and partly in verse; complaining greatly of the "wayes, which are so grossly foul and bad;" and suggesting various remedies.  He pointed out that much ground "is now spoiled and trampled down in all wide roads, where coaches and carts take liberty to pick and chuse for their best advantages; besides, such sprawling and straggling of coaches and carts utterly confound the road in all wide places, so that it is not only unpleasurable, but extreme perplexin and cumbersome both to themselves and all horse travellers."  It would thus appear that the country on either side of the road was as yet entirely unenclosed.

But Mace's principal complaint was of the "innumerable controversies, quarrellings, and disturbances" caused by the packhorse-men, in their struggles as to which convoy should pass along the cleaner parts of the road.  From what he states, it would seem that these "disturbances, daily committed by uncivil, refractory, and rude Russian-like rake-shames, in contesting for the way, too often proved mortal, and certainly were of very bad consequences to many."  He recommended a quick and prompt punishment in all such cases.  "No man," said he, "should be pestered by giving the way (sometimes) to hundreds of pack-horses, panniers, whifflers (i.e. paltry fellows), coaches, waggons, wains, carts, or whatsoever others, which continually are very grievous to weary and loaden travellers; but more especially near the city and upon a market day, when, a man having travelled a long and tedious journey, his horse well nigh spent, shall sometimes be compelled to cross out of his way twenty times in one mile's riding, by the irregularity and peevish crossness of such-like whifflers and market women; yea, although their panniers be clearly empty, they will stoutly contend for the way with weary travellers, be they never so many, or almost of what quality soever."  "Nay," said he further, "I have often known many travellers, and myself very often, to have been necessitated to stand stock still behind a standing cart or waggon, on most beastly and unsufferable deep wet wayes, to the great endangering of our horses, and neglect of important business: nor durst we adventure to stirr (for most imminent danger of those deep rutts, and unreasonable ridges) till it has pleased Mister Garter to jog on, which we have taken very kindly."

Mr. Mace's plan of road reform was not extravagant.  He mainly urged that only two good tracks should be maintained, and the road be not allowed to spread out into as many as half-a-dozen very bad ones, presenting high ridges and deep ruts, full of big stones, and many quagmires.  Breaking out into verse, he said --

   "First let the wayes be regularly brought     To artificial form, and truly wrought;     So that we can suppose them firmly mended,     And in all parts the work well ended,     That not a stone's amiss; but all compleat,     All lying smooth, round, firm, and wondrous neat."

After a good deal more in the same strain, he concluded--

   "There's only one thing yet worth thinking on     which is, to put this work in execution."*[5]

But we shall find that more than a hundred years passed before the roads throughout England were placed in a more satisfactory state than they were in the time of Mr. Mace.

The introduction of stage-coaches about the middle of the seventeenth century formed a new era in the history of travelling by road.  At first they were only a better sort of waggon, and confined to the more practicable highways near London.  Their pace did not exceed four miles an hour, and the jolting of the unfortunate passengers conveyed in them must have been very hard to bear. It used to be said of their drivers that they were "seldom sober, never Civil, and always late."

The first mention of coaches for public accommodation is made by Sir William Dugdale in his Diary, from which it appears that a Coventry coach was on the road in 1659.  But probably the first coaches, or rather waggons, were run between London and Dover, as one of the most practicable routes for the purpose.  M. Sobriere, a French man of letters, who landed at Dover on his way to London in the time of Charles II., alludes to the existence of a stagecoach, but it seems to have had no charms for him, as the following passage will show: "That I might not," he says, "take post or be obliged to use the stage-coach, I went from Dover to London in a waggon.  I was drawn by six horses, one before another, and driven by a waggoner, who walked by the side of it.  He was clothed in black, and appointed in all things like another St. George. He had a brave montrero on his head and was a merry fellow, fancied he made a figure, and seemed mightily pleased with himself."

Shortly after, coaches seem to have been running as far north as Preston in Lancashire, as appears by a letter from one Edward Parker to his father, dated November, 1663, in which he says, "I got to London on Saturday last; but my journey was noe ways pleasant, being forced to ride in the boote all the waye. Ye company yt came up with mee were persons of greate quality, as knights and ladyes. My journey's expense was 30s.  This traval hath soe indisposed mee, yt I am resolved never to ride up againe in ye coatch."*[6] These vehicles must, however, have considerably increased, as we find a popular agitation was got up against them.  The Londoners nicknamed them "hell-carts;" pamphlets were written recommending their abolition; and attempts were even made to have them suppressed by Act of Parliament.

Thoresby occasionally alludes to stage-coaches in his Diary, speaking of one that ran between Hull and York in 1679, from which latter place he had to proceed by Leeds in the usual way on horseback.  This Hull vehicle did not run in winter, because of the state of the roads; stagecoaches being usually laid up in that season like ships during Arctic frosts.*[7]

Afterwards, when a coach was put on between York and Leeds, it performed the journey of twenty-four miles in eight hours;*[8] but the road was so bad and dangerous that the travellers were accustomed to get out and walk the greater part of the way.

Thoresby often waxes eloquent upon the subject of his manifold deliverances from the dangers of travelling by coach.  He was especially thankful when he had passed the ferry over the Trent in journeying between Leeds and London, having on several occasions narrowly escaped drowning there.  Once, on his journey to London, some showers fell, which "raised the washes upon the road near Ware to that height that passengers from London that were upon that road swam, and a poor higgler was drowned, which prevented me travelling for many hours; yet towards evening we adventured with some country people, who conducted us over the meadows, whereby we missed the deepest of the Wash at Cheshunt, though we rode to the saddle-skirts for a considerable way, but got safe to Waltham Cross, where we lodged."*[9]  On another occasion Thoresby was detained four days at Stamford by the state of the roads, and was only extricated from his position by a company of fourteen members of the House of Commons travelling towards London, who took him into their convoy, and set out on their way southward attended by competent guides.  When the "waters were out," as the saying went, the country became closed, the roads being simply impassable. During the Civil Wars eight hundred horse were taken prisoners while sticking in the mud.*[10]  When rain fell, pedestrians, horsemen, and coaches alike came to a standstill until the roads dried again and enabled the wayfarers to proceed.  Thus we read of two travellers stopped by the rains within a few miles of Oxford, who found it impossible to accomplish their journey in consequence of the waters that covered the country thereabout.

A curious account has been preserved of the journey of an Irish Viceroy across North Wales towards Dublin in 1685.  The roads were so horrible that instead of the Viceroy being borne along in his coach, the coach itself had to be borne after him the greater part of the way.  He was five hours in travelling between St. Asaph and Conway, a distance of only fourteen miles.  Between Conway and Beaumaris he was forced to walk, while his wife was borne along in a litter. The carriages were usually taken to pieces at Conway and carried on the shoulders of stout Welsh peasants to be embarked at the Straits of Menai.

The introduction of stage-coaches, like every other public improvement, was at first regarded with prejudice, and had considerable obloquy to encounter.  In a curious book published in 1673, entitled 'The Grand Concern of England Explained in several Proposals to Parliament,'*[11] stagecoaches and caravans were denounced as among the greatest evils that had happened to the kingdom, Being alike mischievous to the public, destructive to trade, and prejudicial to the landed interest.  It was alleged that travelling by coach was calculated to destroy the breed of horses, and make men careless of good horsemanship,--that it hindered the training of watermen and seamen, and interfered with the public resources.  The reasons given are curious.  It was said that those who were accustomed to travel in coaches became weary and listless when they rode a few miles, and were unwilling to get on horseback --"not being able to endure frost, snow, or rain, or to lodge in the fields;" that to save their clothes and keep themselves clean and dry, people rode in coaches, and thus contracted an idle habit of body; that this was ruinous to trade, for that "most gentlemen, before they travelled in coaches, used to ride with swords, belts, pistols, holsters, portmanteaus, and hat-cases, which, in these coaches, they have little or no occasion for: for, when they rode on horseback, they rode in one suit and carried another to wear when they camp to their journey's end, or lay by the way; but in coaches a silk suit and an Indian gown, with a sash, silk stockings, and beaver-hats, men ride in, and carry no other with them, because they escape the wet and dirt, which on horseback they cannot avoid; whereas, in two or three journeys on horseback, these clothes and hats were wont to be spoiled; which done, they were forced to have new very often, and that increased the consumption of the manufactures and the employment of the manufacturers; which travelling in coaches doth in no way do."*[12]  The writer of the same protest against coaches gives some idea of the extent of travelling by them in those days; for to show the gigantic nature of the evil he was contending against, he averred that between London and the three principal towns of York, Chester, and Exeter, not fewer than eighteen persons, making the journey in five days, travelled by them weekly the coaches running thrice in the week), and a like number back; "which come, in the whole, to eighteen hundred and seventy-two in the year."  Another great nuisance, the writer alleged, which flowed from the establishment of the stage-coaches, was, that not only did the gentlemen from the country come to London in them oftener than they need, but their ladies either came with them or quickly followed them.  "And when they are there they must be in the mode, have all the new fashions, buy all their clothes there, and go to plays, balls, and treats, where they get such a habit of jollity and a love to gaiety and pleasure, that nothing afterwards in the country will serve them , if ever they should fix their minds to live there again; but they must have all from London, whatever it costs."

Then there were the grievous discomforts of stage-coach travelling, to be set against the more noble method of travelling by horseback, as of yore.  "What advantage is it to men's health," says the writer, waxing wroth, "to be called out of their beds into these coaches, an hour before day in the morning; to be hurried in them from place to place, till one hour, two, or three within night; insomuch that, after sitting all day in the summer-time stifled with heat and choked with dust, or in the winter-time starving and freezing with cold or choked with filthy fogs, they are often brought into their inns by torchlight, when it is too late to sit up to get a supper; and next morning they are forced into the coach so early that they can get no breakfast?  What addition is this to men's health or business to ride all day with strangers, oftentimes sick, antient, diseased persons, or young children crying; to whose humours they are obliged to be subject, forced to bear with, and many times are poisoned with their nasty scents and crippled by the crowd of boxes and bundles? Is it for a man's health to travel with tired jades, to be laid fast in the foul ways and forced to wade up to the knees in mire; afterwards sit in the cold till teams of horses can be sent to pull the coach out? Is it for their health to travel in rotten coaches and to have their tackle, perch, or axle-tree broken, and then to wait three or four hours (sometimes half a day) to have them mended, and then to travel all night to make good their stage?  Is it for a man's pleasure, or advantageous to his health and business, to travel with a mixed company that he knows not how to converse with; to be affronted by the rudeness of a surly, dogged, cursing, ill-natured coachman; necessitated to lodge or bait at the worst inn on the road, where there is no accommodation fit for gentlemen; and this merely because the owners of the inns and the coachmen are agreed together to cheat the guests?"  Hence the writer loudly called for the immediate suppression of stagecoaches as a great nuisance and crying evil.

Travelling by coach was in early times a very deliberate affair. Time was of less consequence than safety, and coaches were advertised to start "God willing," and "about" such and such an hour "as shall seem good" to the majority of the passengers. The difference of a day in the journey from London to York was a small matter, and Thoresby was even accustomed to leave the coach and go in search of fossil shells in the fields on either side the road while making the journey between the two places.  The long coach "put up" at sun-down, and "slept on the road."  Whether the coach was to proceed or to stop at some favourite inn, was determined by the vote of the passengers, who usually appointed a chairman at the beginning of the journey.

In 1700, York was a week distant from London, and Tunbridge Wells, now reached in an hour, was two days.  Salisbury and Oxford were also each a two days journey, Dover was three days, and Exeter five. The Fly coach from London to Exeter slept at the latter place the fifth night from town; the coach proceeding next morning to Axminster, where it breakfasted, and there a woman Barber "shaved the coach."*[13]

Between London and Edinburgh, as late as 1763, a fortnight was consumed, the coach only starting once a month.*[14]  The risk of breaks-down in driving over the execrable roads may be inferred from the circumstance that every coach carried with it a box of carpenter's tools, and the hatchets were occasionally used in lopping off the branches of trees overhanging the road and obstructing the travellers' progress.

Some fastidious persons, disliking the slow travelling, as well as the promiscuous company which they ran the risk of encountering in the stage, were accustomed to advertise for partners in a postchaise, to share the charges and lessen the dangers of the road; and, indeed, to a sensitive person anything must have been preferable to the misery of travelling by the Canterbury stage, as thus described by a contemporary writer:--

   "On both sides squeez'd, how highly was I blest,     Between two plump old women to be presst!     A corp'ral fierce, a nurse, a child that cry'd,     And a fat landlord, filled the other side.     Scarce dawns the morning ere the cumbrous load     Boils roughly rumbling o'er the rugged road:     One old wife coughs and wheezes in my ears,     Loud scolds the other, and the soldier swears;     Sour unconcocted breath escapes 'mine host,'     The sick'ning child returns his milk and toast!"

When Samuel Johnson was taken by his mother to London in 1712, to have him touched by Queen Anne for "the evil," he relates,-- "We went in the stage-coach and returned in the waggon, as my mother said, because my cough was violent; but the hope of saving a few shillings was no slight motive....  She sewed two guineas in her petticoat lest she should be robbed....  We were troublesome to the passengers; but to suffer such inconveniences in the stage-coach was common in those days to parsons in much higher rank."

Mr. Pennant has left us the following account of his journey in the Chester stage to London in 1789-40: "The first day," says he, "with much labour, we got from Chester to Whitchurch, twenty miles; the second day to the 'Welsh Harp;' the third, to Coventry; the fourth, to Northampton; the fifth, to Dunstable; and, as a wondrous effort, on the last, to London, before the commencement of night.  The strain and labour of six good horses, sometimes eight, drew us through the sloughs of Mireden and many other places. We were constantly out two hours before day, and as late at night, and in the depth of winter proportionally later.  The single gentlemen, then a hardy race, equipped in jackboots and trowsers, up to their middle, rode post through thick and thin, and, guarded against the mire, defied the frequent stumble and fall, arose and pursued their journey with alacrity; while, in these days, their enervated posterity sleep away their rapid journeys in easy chaises, fitted for the conveyance of the soft inhabitants of Sybaris."

No wonder, therefore, that a great deal of the travelling of the country continued to be performed on horseback, this being by far the pleasantest as well as most expeditious mode of journeying. On his marriage-day, Dr. Johnson rode from Birmingham to Derby with his Tetty, taking the opportunity of the journey to give his bride her first lesson in marital discipline.  At a later period James Watt rode from Glasgow to London, when proceeding thither to learn the art of mathematical instrument making.

And it was a cheap and pleasant method of travelling when the weather was fine.  The usual practice was, to buy a horse at the beginning of such a journey, and to sell the animal at the end of it.  Dr. Skene, of Aberdeen, travelled from London to Edinburgh in 1753, being nineteen days on the road, the whole expenses of the journey amounting to only four guineas.  The mare on which he rode, cost him eight guineas in London, and he sold her for the same price on his arrival in Edinburgh.

Nearly all the commercial gentlemen rode their own horses, carrying their samples and luggage in two bags at the saddle-bow; and hence their appellation of Riders or Bagmen.  For safety's sake, they usually journeyed in company; for the dangers of travelling were not confined merely to the ruggedness of the roads.  The highways were infested by troops of robbers and vagabonds who lived by plunder. Turpin and Bradshaw beset the Great North Road; Duval, Macheath, Maclean, and hundreds of notorious highwaymen infested Hounslow Heath, Finchley Common, Shooter's Hill, and all the approaches to the metropolis.  A very common sight then, was a gibbet erected by the roadside, with the skeleton of some malefactor hanging from it in chains; and " Hangman's-lanes" were especially numerous in the neighbourhood of London.*[15]  It was considered most unsafe to travel after dark, and when the first "night coach" was started, the risk was thought too great, and it was not patronised.

[Image] The Night Coach

Travellers armed themselves on setting out upon a journey as if they were going to battle, and a blunderbuss was considered as indispensable for a coachman as a whip.  Dorsetshire and Hampshire, like most other counties, were beset with gangs of highwaymen; and when the Grand Duke Cosmo set out from Dorchester to travel to London in 1669, he was "convoyed by a great many horse-soldiers belonging to the militia of the county, to secure him from robbers."*[16]