Robert Burns Complete Works – World’s Best Collection E-Book

Robert Burns

• Herausgeber: Imagination Books
• Kategorie: Poesie und Drama
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Seitenzahl: 2134

Beschreibung

Robert Burns Complete Works World's Best Collection

This is the world's best Robert Burns collection, including the most complete set of Burns' works available plus many free bonus materials.

Robert Burns

Robert Burns, also known as the Scotland's Favorite Son, the Bard of Ayrshire and the Ploughman Poet, was a Scottish poet and lyricist, widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland.

He is regarded as a pioneer of the Romantic movement, and after his death he became a great source of inspiration to the founders of both liberalism and socialism

The ‘Must-Have' Complete Collection

In this irresistible collection you get a full set of Burns' work, with more than 300 works - All his poems, All poetry, All his songs, ballads, rarities, epigrams; and a full length biography. Plus a rare collection of his letters and bonus extra material.

There are countless must reads, ranging from the well-known pieces to fantastic and startling new works to discover..

Works Included:

Poetical Works - Over 300 Poems, songs, epigrams and ballads, including among others:

A Red, Red Rose

A Man's A Man for A' That

To a Louse

To a Mouse

The Battle of Sherramuir

Tam o' Shanter

Ae Fond Kiss

Full Collection Of Burns' Letters

Life Of Robert Burns - A fascinating, ful length biography of Scotland's favourite son, detailing his life from childhood.

Your Free Bonuses

Glossary - A glossary of all the terms, phrases and words used in Burns' work

Burns And His School - Literary essay from Charles Kinglsey

Historical Context and Literary Context Notes - Detailed explanations of the Regency Era and Romanticism, written specially for this collection

Robert Burns - the poem about Burns written by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

Get This Collection Right Now

This is the best Burns collection you can get, so get it now and start enjoying and being inspired by his words like never before.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title Page

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: THE REGENCY PERIOD

LITERARY CONTEXT: ROMANTICISM AND THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT

ROBERT BURNS – THE POEM BY HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW

PREFACE.

DEDICATION

LIFE OF ROBERT BURNS.

GLOSSARY.

I. WINTER - A DIRGE.

II. THE DEATH AND DYING WORDS

III. POOR MAILIE’S ELEGY.

IV. FIRST EPISTLE TO DAVIE,

V. SECOND EPISTLE TO DAVIE,

VI. ADDRESS TO THE DEIL

VII. THE AULD FARMER’S

VIII. TO A HAGGIS.

IX.A PRAYER, UNDER THE PRESSURE OF VIOLENT ANGUISH.

X.A PRAYER IN THE PROSPECT OF DEATH.

XI. STANZAS

XII. A WINTER NIGHT.

XIII. REMORSE.

XIV. THE JOLLY BEGGARS.

XV. DEATH AND DR. HORNBOOK.

XVI. THE TWA HERDS:

XVII. HOLY WILLIE’S PRAYER.

XVIII. EPITAPH ON HOLY WILLIE.

XIX.THE INVENTORY;

XX.THE HOLY FAIR.

XXI. THE ORDINATION.

XXII. THE CALF.

XXIII. TO JAMES SMITH.

XXIV. THE VISION.

XXV. HALLOWEEN.

XXVI. MAN WAS MADE TO MOURN.

XXVII. TO RUIN.

XXVIII. TO JOHN GOUDIE OF KILMARNOCK.

XXIX.TO J. LAPRAIK.

XXX.To J. LAPRAIK.

XXXI. TO J. LAPRAIK.

XXXII. TO WILLIAM SIMPSON,

XXXIII. ADDRESS

XXXIV. NATURE’S LAW.

XXXV. TO THE REV. JOHN M’MATH.

XXXVI. TO A MOUSE,

XXXVII. SCOTCH DRINK.

XXXVIII. THE AUTHOR’S

XXXIX.ADDRESS TO THE UNCO GUID,

XL.TAM SAMSON’S ELEGY.

XLI. LAMENT, OCCASIONED BY THE UNFORTUNATE ISSUE OF A FRIEND’S AMOUR.

XLII. DESPONDENCY.

XLIII. THE COTTER’S SATURDAY NIGHT.

XLIV. THE FIRST PSALM.

XLV. THE FIRST SIX VERSES OF THE NINETIETH PSALM.

XLVI. TO A MOUNTAIN DAISY,

XLVII. EPISTLE TO A YOUNG FRIEND.

XLVIII. TO A LOUSE,

XLIX.EPISTLE TO J. RANKINE,

L.ON A SCOTCH BARD,

LI. THE FAREWELL.

LII. WRITTEN

LIII. A DEDICATION TO GAVIN HAMILTON, ESQ.

LIV. ELEGY ON THE DEATH OF ROBERT RUISSEAUX.

LV. LETTER TO JAMES TENNANT,

LVI. ON THE BIRTH OF A POSTHUMOUS CHILD.

LVII. TO MISS CRUIKSHANK,

LVIII. WILLIE CHALMERS.

LIX.LYING AT A REVEREND FRIEND’S HOUSE ON NIGHT,

LX.TO GAVIN HAMILTON, ESQ.,

LXI. TO MR. M’ADAM,

LXII. ANSWER TO A POETICAL EPISTLE SENT TO THE AUTHOR BY A TAILOR.

LXIII. TO J. RANKINE.

LXIV. LINES WRITTEN ON A BANK-NOTE.

LXV. A DREAM.

LXVI. A BARD’S EPITAPH.

LXVII. THE TWA DOGS.

LXVIII. LINES ON MEETING WITH LORD DAER.

LXIX.ADDRESS TO EDINBURGH.

LXX.EPISTLE TO MAJOR LOGAN.

LXXI. THE BRIGS OF AYR,

LXXII. ON THE DEATH OF ROBERT DUNDAS, ESQ.,

LXXIII. ON READING IN A NEWSPAPER

LXXIV. TO MISS LOGAN,

LXXV. THE AMERICAN WAR.

LXXVI. THE DEAN OF FACULTY.

LXXVII. TO A LADY,

LXXVIII. TO CLARINDA.

LXXIX.VERSES WRITTEN UNDER THE PORTRAIT OF FERGUSSON, THE POET, IN A COPY OF THAT AUTHOR’S WORKS PRESENTED TO A YOUNG LADY.

LXXX.PROLOGUE SPOKEN BY MR. WOODS ON HIS BENEFIT NIGHT,

LXXXI. SKETCH.

LXXXII. TO MRS. SCOTT,

LXXXIII. EPISTLE TO WILLIAM CREECH.

LXXXIV. THE HUMBLE PETITION OF BRUAR WATER

LXXXV. ON SCARING SOME WATER-FOWL

LXXXVI. WRITTEN WITH A PENCIL, OVER THE CHIMNEY-PIECE, IN THE PARLOUR OF THE INN AT KENMORE, TAYMOUTH.

LXXXVII. WRITTEN WITH A PENCIL, STANDING BY THE FALL OF FYERS, NEAR LOCH-NESS

LXXXVIII. POETICAL ADDRESS

LXXXIX.WRITTEN IN FRIARS-CARSE HERMITAGE,

XC.WRITTEN IN FRIARS-CARSE HERMITAGE,

XCI. TO CAPTAIN RIDDEL, OF GLENRIDDEL.EXTEMPORE LINES ON RETURNING A NEWSPAPER.

XCII. A MOTHER’S LAMENT

XCIII. FIRST EPISTLE TO ROBERT GRAHAM, ESQ.

XCIV. ON THE DEATH OF SIR JAMES HUNTER BLAIR.

XCV. EPISTLE TO HUGH PARKER.

XCVI. LINES INTENDED TO BE WRITTEN UNDER

XCVII. ELEGY

XCVIII. ADDRESS TO THE TOOTHACHE.

XCIX.ODE

C.FRAGMENT INSCRIBED

CI. ON SEEING

CII. TO DR. BLACKLOCK,

CIII. DELIA.

CIV. TO JOHN M’MURDO, ESQ.

CV. PROLOGUE,

CVI. SCOTS PROLOGUE,

CVII. SKETCH.

CVIII. TO A GENTLEMAN

CIX.THE KIRK’S ALARM; A SATIRE.

CX.THE KIRK’S ALARM. A BALLAD. [SECOND VERSION.]

CXI. PEG NICHOLSON.

CXII. ON CAPTAIN MATTHEW HENDERSON,

CXIII. THE FIVE CARLINS.

CXIV. THE LADDIES BY THE BANKS O’ NITH.

CXV. EPISTLE TO ROBERT GRAHAM, ESQ.

CXVI. ON CAPTAIN GROSE’S

CXVII. WRITTEN IN A WRAPPER,

CXVIII. TAM O’ SHANTER.

CXIX.ADDRESS OF BEELZEBUB

CXX.TO JOHN TAYLOR.

CXXI. LAMENT

CXXII. THE WHISTLE.

CXXIII. ELEGY

CXXIV. LAMENT

CXXV. LINES SENT TO SIR JOHN WHITEFOORD, BART.,

CXXVI. ADDRESS

CXXVII. TO ROBERT GRAHAM, ESQ.,

CXXVIII. TO ROBERT GRAHAM, ESQ.,

CXXIX.A VISION.

CXXX.TO JOHN MAXWELL OF TERRAUGHTY,

CXXXI. THE RIGHTS OF WOMAN.

CXXXII. MONODY,

CXXXIII. EPISTLE FROM

CXXXIV. POEM

CXXXV. SONNET, WRITTEN ON THE TWENTY-FIFTH OF JANUARY, 1793,

CXXXVI. SONNET, ON THE DEATH OF ROBERT RIDDEL, ESQ. OF GLENRIDDEL,

CXXXVII. IMPROMPTU,

CXXXVIII. LIBERTY.

CXXXIX.VERSES TO A YOUNG LADY.

CXL.THE VOWELS.

CXLI. VERSES TO JOHN RANKINE.

CXLII. ON SENSIBILITY.

CXLIII. LINES, SENT TO A GENTLEMAN WHOM HE HAD OFFENDED.

CXLIV. ADDRESS, SPOKEN BY MISS FONTENELLE ON HER BENEFIT

CXLV. ON SEEING MISS FONTENELLE

CXLVI. TO CHLORIS.

CXLVII. POETICAL INSCRIPTION FOR AN ALTAR TO INDEPENDENCE.

CXLVIII. THE HERON BALLADS.

CXLIX.THE HERON BALLADS.

CL.THE HERON BALLADS.

CLI. POEM, ADDRESSED TO MR. MITCHELL, COLLECTOR OF EXCISE.

CLII. TO MISS JESSY LEWARS,

CLIII. POEM ON LIFE, ADDRESSED TO COLONEL DE PEYSTER. DUMFRIES, 1796.

EPITAPHS, EPIGRAMS, FRAGMENTS,

LETTERS OF ROBERT BURNS

BURNS AND HIS SCHOOL – ESSAY ON ROBERT BURNS

ROBERT BURNS

ROBERT BURNS COMPLETE WORKS – WORLD’S BEST COLLECTION

Edited By Darryl Marks

ROBERT BURNS COMPLETE WORKS – WORLD’S BEST COLLECTION Original Publication Dates Poems, letters and works of Robert Burns - circa 1756 – 1796 Life of Robert Burns – Allan Cunningham – 1855 Robert Burns – Principal Shairp – 1879 Literary and General Lectures and Essays - Charles Kingsley – circa 1875 Robert Burns – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow – 1880 First Imagination Books edition published 2018 Copyright © 2018 by Darryl Marks and Infinite Eternity Entertainment LLC All Rights Reserved."HISTORICAL CONTEXT: THE REGENCY ERA” “LITERARY CONTEXT: ROMANTICISIM” By Darryl Marks Copyright © 2018 by Darryl Marks and Infinite Eternity Entertainment LLC All Rights Reserved.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: THE REGENCY PERIOD

The Regency Period

Burns wrote within what is known as the Regency Era. This Regency Era or Regency Period can refer to various stretches of time, although the formal Regency lasted from 1811–1820. This period began in 1810 when George III was taken seriously ill. Due to fits of madness he was declared incapable of ruling because of his mental incapacity. In 1788 there had been a Regency Act that had been created because of George’s fits of madness. This act made it possible for his son, the Prince Regent, to rule as head of the country. In 1810, when George III’s madness became untenable, the act was formally passed, making George III’s son Regent and head of state. The Regency Period itself lasted until George III’s death in 1820 when the Regent officially became King George IV and was able to rule in his own right.

In 1837, Victoria became Queen, heralding the beginning of the Victorian Era.

It is easy to see why various different time periods can be classed as the Regency period. For certain historians, the period from 1795 to 1837 (which includes the latter part of the reign of George III and the reigns of his sons George IV and William IV) is sometimes regarded as the Regency era.

The Prince Regent Himself

George Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales, was 48 when he was appointed Prince Regent to his father, King George III. Notable for his extravagant lifestyle, the Regent was heavy drinker and compulsive gambler, who was gifted with charming manners, and musical ability in the form of singing and the cello.

The Regent though, was considered untrustworthy, hated his father George III, and this led him down several wayward paths: he colluded and allied himself with the Whig opposition in Parliament; he illegally and secretly married Maria Fitzherbert in 1785; he also married Princess Caroline of Brunswick, in 1795, despite hating her as well.

The Characteristics of the Regency

Regardless of time period used the Regency period is characterized by distinctive trends in British architecture, literature, fashions, politics, and culture.

Some of the basic characteristics of the period include:

Like the Regent himself, is characterized by freedom and extravagance compared with the ascetic lifestyle of his father George III.

Society was also considerably stratified, and there was a large class divide between the rich, opulence of the higher classes (sometimes bordering on debauchery) and the dingy, darker side of the lower classes.

There may have been rich, sumptuous, glamorous elements to life in higher class Regency society, but there was also the less affluent areas of London, where thievery, womanizing, gambling, and constant drinking was rampant.

Poverty was addressed only marginally and the betterment of society was far from the minds of the ruling class.

In fact, the formation of the Regency after George III saw the end of a pious, reserved society, and gave birth of a frivolous, ostentatious one. This was influenced by the Regent himself, who was kept removed from politics and military exploits and only channeled his energies into the pursuit of pleasure (also partly as his sole form of rebellion against what he saw as disapproval and censure in the form of his father).

Saul David in his biography of George IV describes the Regency “in its widest sense (1800-1830)” as a “devil-may-care period of low morals and high fashion”.

This societal gap was even exploited in the popular media and literature: One of the driving forces in the changes in the world at that time was the industrial revolution and its effects. Steam printing allowed a massively improved method to produce printed materials, and this gave rise to wildly popular fashionable novels about the rich and aristocratic. Publishers secretly hinted at the specific identity of these individuals in the books in order to drive sales. The gap in the hierarchy of society was so great that those of the upper classes were viewed by those below as wondrous and fantastical (like a fiction or living legend).

Such novels and literature from this period is still popular today, as is the period novel itself.

Society

One of the main draw-cards for the Regency’s popularity is its elegance and achievements in the fine arts and architecture. Although this was an era where war was waged (such as with Napoleon), the Regency was also a period of great refinement and cultural achievement. This shaped and molded the whole societal structure of Britain as a whole.

The Regency is popular mostly because of the so-called ‘Feel of the Regency’ period, associated with such period romances, glamorous elegance and etiquette, extravagant follies, and melodramatic emotions; filled with balls and duels, unrequited love, and romantic liaisons.

In terms of the prevailing literature movement of the time, it was the Romantic Movement that was well-established by the time the Regency started. Rich in literature, poetry and prose, it was the time of the Romantic poets like Wordsworth, Byron, Coleridge and Shelley and the Romantic novelist, Sir Walter Scott.

Romanticism was a revolt against the aristocratic, social, and political norms of the Enlightenment period (and its rationalistic attitude) which preceded it. Romanticism stressed emotion as a source of literary experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as anxiety, horror, and the feeling when observing nature. All of these themes are evident in the best-known classic Regency works.

Of course the works of Jane Austen are inextricably linked to the Regency, and her works have become known as archetypal Regency romances. It was a decade of particular etiquette and fashions with traits that include a highly developed sense of social standing for the characters, emphasis on "manners" and class issues, and the emergence of modern social thought amongst the upper classes of England.

In the British Regency, a marriage based on love was rarely an option for most women and instead, securing a steady and sufficient income was the first consideration for both the woman and her family.

This led to the Regency period yielding o many examples of both novel and poetry that echoed literary romance: it gave many the opportunity to live through the work's heroine, who generally married someone she loved deeply.

Mary Shelley's Frankenstein was published in 1818, also falling within the Regency era. It also was part of the Romantics era and many consider it to be the single piece of British literature that best reflects the interests and concerns of the time - fascination with and fear of the science and technological advances of the times, while dredging up the emotions of horror and terror.

Major writers of classic Regency fiction

Jane Austen (1775–1817)

Maria Edgeworth (1768–1849)

Susan Ferrier (1782–1854)

ETA Hoffman (1776–1822)

Sir Walter Scott (1771–1832)

Mary Shelley (1797–1851)

Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822)

Johann David Wyss (1743–1818)

Major writers of modern Regency fiction

Mary Balogh (born 1944)

Jo Beverley (born 1947)

Susan Carroll (born 1952)

Loretta Chase (born 1949)

Lecia Cornwall

Georgette Heyer (1902–1974)

Mary Jo Putney

Events of the Regency Era

1811

George Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales, begins his nine-year tenure as regent and became known as The Prince Regent.

1812

Prime Minister Spencer Perceval assassinated in the House of Commons.

The British were victorious over French armies at the Battle of Salamanca).

Gas company (Gas Light and Coke Company) founded. Charles Dickens, English writer and social critic of the Victorian era, was born on 7 February 1812.

1813

Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen was published.

William Hedley's Puffing Billy – which was an early steam locomotive - runs on smooth rails.

1814

Invasion of France by allies led to the Treaty of Paris, ended one of the Napoleonic Wars.

Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to Elba.

Gas lighting introduced in London streets.

1815

Napoleon I of France defeated by the Seventh Coalition at the Battle of Waterloo.

Napoleon now exiled to St. Helena.

1816

Income tax abolished.

A "year without a summer" followed a volcanic eruption in Indonesia.

Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein.

1817

Antonin Carême created a spectacular feast for the Prince Regent at the Royal Pavilion in Brighton.

The death of Princess Charlotte (the Prince Regent's daughter) from complications of childbirth changed obstetrical practices.

1818

Queen Charlotte died at Kew. Manchester cotton spinners went on strike. Frankenstein published.

Emily Brontë born.

1819

Ivanhoe by Walter Scott was published.

Sir Stamford Raffles, a British administrator, founded Singapore. First steam-propelled vessel (the SS Savannah) crossed the Atlantic and arrived in Liverpool from Savannah, Georgia.

1820

Death of George III and accession of The Prince Regent as George IV.

Historical Context of the Regency - Periods in English History

Prehistoric Britainuntil c. 43

Roman Britainc. 43–410

Anglo-Saxonc. 500–1066

Norman1066–1154

Plantagenet1154–1485

Tudor1485–1603

Elizabethan1558–1603

Stuart1603–1714

Jacobean1603–1625

Caroline1625–1649

(Interregnum)1649–1660

Restoration1660–1714

Georgian1714–1837

Regency1811–1820

Victorian1837–1901

Edwardian1901–1914

First World War1914–1918

Interwar Britain1918–1939

Second World War1939–1945

LITERARY CONTEXT: ROMANTICISM AND THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT

Romanticism and the Romantic Movement

Burns belongs to a period of time in arts and literature known as the Romantic Era. His work echoes many of the ideals of this Romantic movement. To fully appreciate his work, it can be useful to understand this time in literary history.

The Romantic era was caused by a variety of factors.

Firstly, it was largely a reaction to the Age of Enlightenment, a period of time defined by strict rules, intellectualism, as well as aristocratic social and political norms.

Romanticism was also partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution and modernity, as well as the scientific rationalization of nature.

Historical Context

Romanticism, as an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement, began in Europe toward the end of the 18th century. Because of Romanticism beginning in slightly different time periods in various different countries (ranging from Scotland, Great Britain, to France, Germany and beyond), it is a matter of debate exactly when the movement began.

There are even scholars who identify the French Revolution, which began in 1789, as being another ‘source’ of the inspiration that led to the Era, with its rejection of the rules and class structures of the preceding era.

Despite this debate, it is generally accepted that the Romantic Era began in the late 18th Century and reached its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850.

The period of time that preceded Romanticism is known as the Age of Enlightenment, which was characterized by the concepts of Rationalism and Classicism.

Enlightenment was ruled by concepts of rationality, of sciences, mathematics and numbers. By strict rules in regard to literature and the arts. Enlightenment also rejected many elements of the past, such as the Middle Ages and Medieval periods.

Its main focus was on intellectualism, on essentially endeavoring to define the concept of life according to intellect and reason.

Romanticism, Romantic Literature and Romantic Poetry was a direct reaction against this intellectualism and reason.

Instead of the rationality and the rules that Enlightenment held, Romanticism focused on human experience as defined by emotion.

From a poetry point of view, Romantic Poetry was a reaction against the set standards and conventions of eighteenth century poetry and neoclassic poetry. As explained by William J. Long, “The Romantic Movement was marked, and is always marked, by a strong reaction and protest against the bondage of rule and custom which in science and theology as well as literature, generally tend to fetter the free human spirit.”

Besides from the French Revolution as being cited as an influence in the beginning of the movement, some of the other main factors that gave rise to the era can be traced back to the German “Sturm und Drang” movement. Meaning "Storm and Drive" or "Storm and Urge" or "Storm and Stress", this was as a proto-Romantic movement between the 1760s and 1780s in German literature and music.

It emphasized individual subjectivity, extreme emotional states, free expression, all of which were in direct opposition to the objectivity and rule-based rationalism imposed by the Enlightenment. The period takes it’s named from Friedrich Maximilian Klinger's play Sturm und Drang, which was first performed in 1777.

Another German influence came in the form of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. In 1774, Goethe wrote the novel “The Sorrows of Young Werther” and its protagonist struck a strong chord with young men throughout Europe - he was a young, passionate sensitive artist wand many young men in Germany sought to emulate him.

In English literature, the key figures of the Romantic movement are considered to be the group of poets including William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and the much older William Blake, followed later by the isolated figure of John Clare. In Scotland, Robert Burns became a leading figure in the Romantic Movement and influenced many other writers all across Europe (even becoming the people’s poet of Russia).

In England, it was the 1798 publication of Lyrical Ballads (from Wordsworth and Coleridge) that is said to have started the movement officially.

The poems of Lyrical Ballads intentionally re-imagined the way poetry should sound. As Wordsworth put it: "By fitting to metrical arrangement a selection of the real language of men…"

In other words, Wordsworth wanted to show the true emotions men and women felt and find a way to construct poetry and art that evoked that emotion, and moved people emotionally.

As he said: “I have said before that poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin in emotion recollected in tranquility: the emotion is contemplated till, by a species of reaction, the tranquility gradually disappears, and an emotion, kindred to that which was before the subject of contemplation, is gradually produced, and does itself actually exist in the mind…”

The Romantic movement spread across Europe and even found it influenced artists in America, such as Longfellow.

Etymology

Although common usage of the word Romantic has attached concepts such as love, romance and passion, the word in context of the Romantic Era and Romanticism is derived from different sources and has different connotations.

Essentially, the word is derived from the root word "Roman", which is found in various European languages, such as "romance" and "Romanesque".

In earlier periods, Romantic or romantique, as an adjective could be used to describe praise for natural phenomena such as views and sunsets. In other words, it wasn’t only used for the idea of Romance between people within a relationship.

Elements of Romanticism

Emotion

As explained, Romanticism was a direct Counter-Enlightenment movement and its focus was on the filtering of natural emotion through the human mind in order to create meaning. Whereas Enlightenment focused on Rationality, Romanticism focused on Emotion.

Although the concept may seem natural to us now, this was not so in the period of Enlightenment - strict rules and a focus of Objectivity, made poetry and literature of that period very different.

It was the Romantic movement itself that gave rise to the concept of using emotion in art, of trying to evoke and emulate true human emotional experience in words.

At the time, this was seen as difficult and the movement was revolutionary for its ability to convey that true emotion.

Because of this, the poets and writers themselves often wrote down much of their own emotion in their work, and so much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves.

The emotions it emphasized were vast, ranging from love to intense emotions such as apprehension, horror and terror, and awe.

Imagination

Belief in the importance of the imagination is a distinctive feature of romantic poets such as John Keats, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and P. B. Shelley.

This was unlike the neoclassical poets who put greater importance on a set of rules that dictated what a work should look like.

Indeed, for Wordsworth and Blake, as well as Victor Hugo and Alessandro Manzoni, they saw imagination is a spiritual force. They also believed that literature, especially poetry, could improve the world.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were natural laws the imagination would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. So it was an essential part of Romanticism that the content of art had to come from the imagination of the artist, with as little interference as possible from "artificial" rules dictating what a work should consist of. The influence of these models from other works was considered to impede the creator's own imagination.

The concept of the genius/artist who was able to produce his own original work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism, and to be derivative was the worst sin. This idea is often called "romantic originality.”

Rejection of Satire

Predominately, Romanticism tended to regard satire as something unworthy of serious attention.

The work of the Romantics was intended to be about true emotion and satire detracted from this.

Spontaneity

Being spontaneous and not following strict rules was highly admired by the Romantic artists. An example of this was an impromptu musical recital, what might be called a ‘jam session’ today.

Instead of a tightly set out set of rule based structure of music, with its required crescendos and codas, it was more important to the Romantics to be spontaneous and to see what happened in the music.

Nature poetry

For most of the Romantics, love for nature was another important feature of romantic poetry, as well a source of inspiration. Their connection to external nature and places, and a belief in pantheism, was paramount.

Wordsworth considered nature as a living thing, teacher, god and everything, as expressed in his epic poem The Prelude.

Keats and Shelley were also nature poets, who also believed that nature is a living thing and there is a union between nature and man.

Coleridge differs from other romantic poets of his age, in that he has a realistic perspective on nature. Coleridge believed that joy does not come from external nature, but from the reaction an individual has to that nature based on their own feelings at the time.

Still, nature was very important to many Romantics of the time. The cliché of the poet sitting under a tree, alone in a meadow, comes from this Romantic period.

Isolation of the Poet

Love of nature and that idea of the Poet alone also ties into the idea of a poet’s isolation.

In order to create this wholly original piece of art, it was generally emphasized that the artists should be alone, working on his own.

This was in contrast to the usually very social art of the Enlightenment.

Melancholy

Melancholy and sadness occupied a prominent place in romantic poetry, and served as an important source of inspiration for the Romantic poets. Again, this emotion was in contrast to the Objectivity of Enlightenment.

Medievalism, Hellenism and Exoticism

Romantic poetry was attracted to nostalgia, in particular the Middle Ages, the heroes and tales of the Medieval period, and the classical Greek writings. They were also attracted to exotic, remote and obscure places, which is shown in much of their writing.

Supernaturalism

Although not essential to all Romantics, many of the romantic poets used supernatural elements in their poetry. Samuel Taylor Coleridge is the leading romantic poet in this regard, and "Kubla Khan" is full of supernatural elements. Romantic writers in literature often used Supernatural elements, such as Edgar Allen Poe. This supernatural element often gave the work an even more intense emotional content.

Subjectivity

Romantic poetry is the poetry of sentiments, emotions and imagination, as opposed to the objectivity of neoclassical poetry. Neoclassical poets avoided describing their personal emotions in their poetry, but the Romantics often placed themselves into the poem emotionally.

Nationalism

Although much of English Romanticism was not nationalistic, in other parts of Europe, for example Germany, there was a great deal of nationalism in the Romantic works. Even writers such as Robert Burns (who is known as the Poet Laureate of Scotland) evoked a certain sense of national pride in their writing.

End of Romanticism

The end of the Romantic era is marked in some areas by a new style…Realism. Some scholars see this new movement as another reaction against the previous era – in other words, Realism was the reaction against Romanticism.

This Realism movement was led by France, with Balzac and Flaubert in literature and Courbet in painting. It affected literature, especially the novel and drama, painting, and even music, through Verismo opera.

The reasons for this are also complicated but it was partly because the Early Romantic visionary optimism and belief that the world was in the process of great change and improvement had largely vanished, especially in northern Europe.

As a result, art became more conventionally political as its creators engaged polemically with the world.

Legacy

Many of the Romantics ideas about nature, individuality, purpose of art, above all the pre-eminent importance of originality, remained important for later generations, and often underlie modern views.

We accept those concepts as in inherent part of the art and literature we see every day, but we should remember that it was these writers that actually created those concepts in art.

ROBERT BURNS – THE POEM BY HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW

I SEE amid the fields of Ayr

A ploughman, who, in foul and fair,

Sings at his task

So clear, we know not if it is

The laverock’s song we hear, or his, 5

Nor care to ask.

For him the ploughing of those fields

A more ethereal harvest yields

Than sheaves of grain;

Songs flush with purple bloom the rye, 10

The plover’s call, the curlew’s cry,

Sing in his brain.

Touched by his hand, the wayside weed

Becomes a flower; the lowliest reed

Beside the stream 15

Is clothed with beauty; gorse and grass

And heather, where his footsteps pass,

The brighter seem.

He sings of love, whose flame illumes

The darkness of lone cottage rooms; 20

He feels the force,

The treacherous undertow and stress

Of wayward passions, and no less

The keen remorse.

At moments, wrestling with his fate, 25

His voice is harsh, but not with hate;

The brush-wood, hung

Above the tavern door, lets fall

Its bitter leaf, its drop of gall

Upon his tongue. 30

But still the music of his song

Rises o’er all, elate and strong;

Its master-chords

Are Manhood, Freedom, Brotherhood,

Its discords but an interlude 35

Between the words.

And then to die so young and leave

Unfinished what he might achieve!

Yet better sure

Is this, than wandering up and down, 40

An old man in a country town,

Infirm and poor.

For now he haunts his native land

As an immortal youth; his hand

Guides every plough; 45

He sits beside each ingle-nook,

His voice is in each rushing brook,

Each rustling bough.

His presence haunts this room to-night,

A form of mingled mist and light 50

From that far coast.

Welcome beneath this roof of mine!

Welcome! this vacant chair is thine,

Dear guest and ghost!

THE POETICAL WORKS OF ROBERT BURNS.

PREFACE.

I cannot give to my country this edition of one of its favourite poets, without stating that I have deliberately omitted several pieces of verse ascribed to Burns by other editors, who too hastily, and I think on insufficient testimony, admitted them among his works. If I am unable to share in the hesitation expressed by one of them on the authorship of the stanzas on “Pastoral Poetry,” I can as little share in the feelings with which they have intruded into the charmed circle of his poetry such compositions as “Lines on the Ruins of Lincluden College,” “Verses on the Destruction of the Woods of Drumlanrig,” “Verses written on a Marble Slab in the Woods of Aberfeldy,” and those entitled “The Tree of Liberty.” These productions, with the exception of the last, were never seen by any one even in the handwriting of Burns, and are one and all wanting in that original vigour of language and manliness of sentiment which distinguish his poetry. With respect to “The Tree of Liberty” in particular, a subject dear to the heart of the Bard, can any one conversant with his genius imagine that he welcomed its growth or celebrated its fruit with such “capon craws” as these?

“Upo’ this tree there grows sic fruit,

Its virtues a’ can tell, man;

It raises man aboon the brute,

It mak’s him ken himsel’, man.

Gif ance the peasant taste a bit,

He’s greater than a lord, man,

An’ wi’ a beggar shares a mite

O’ a’ he can afford, man.”

There are eleven stanzas, of which the best, compared with the “A man’s a man for a’ that” of Burns, sounds like a cracked pipkin against the “heroic clang” of a Damascus blade. That it is extant in the handwriting of the poet cannot be taken as a proof that it is his own composition, against the internal testimony of utter want of all the marks by which we know him—the Burns-stamp, so to speak, which is visible on all that ever came from his pen. Misled by his handwriting, I inserted in my former edition of his works an epitaph, beginning

“Here lies a rose, a budding rose,”

the composition of Shenstone, and which is to be found in the church-yard of Hales-Owen: as it is not included in every edition of that poet’s acknowledged works, Burns, who was an admirer of his genius, had, it seems, copied it with his own hand, and hence my error. If I hesitated about the exclusion of “The Tree of Liberty,” and its three false brethren, I could have no scruples regarding the fine song of “Evan Banks,” claimed and justly for Miss Williams by Sir Walter Scott, or the humorous song called “Shelah O’Neal,” composed by the late Sir Alexander Boswell. When I have stated that I have arranged the Poems, the Songs, and the Letters of Burns, as nearly as possible in the order in which they were written; that I have omitted no piece of either verse or prose which bore the impress of his hand, nor included any by which his high reputation would likely be impaired, I have said all that seems necessary to be said, save that the following letter came too late for insertion in its proper place: it is characteristic and worth a place anywhere.

ALLAN CUNNINGHAM.

DEDICATION

TO DR. ARCHIBALD LAURIE.

Mossgiel, 13th Nov. 1786.

Dear Sir,

I have along with this sent the two volumes of Ossian, with the remaining volume of the Songs. Ossian I am not in such a hurry about; but I wish the Songs, with the volume of the Scotch Poets, returned as soon as they can conveniently be dispatched. If they are left at Mr. Wilson, the bookseller’s shop, Kilmarnock, they will easily reach me.

My most respectful compliments to Mr. and Mrs. Laurie; and a Poet’s warmest wishes for their happiness to the young ladies; particularly the fair musician, whom I think much better qualified than ever David was, or could be, to charm an evil spirit out of a Saul.

Indeed, it needs not the Feelings of a poet to be interested in the welfare of one of the sweetest scenes of domestic peace and kindred love that ever I saw; as I think the peaceful unity of St. Margaret’s Hill can only be excelled by the harmonious concord of the Apocalyptic Zion.

I am, dear Sir, yours sincerely,

Robert Burns.

LIFE OF ROBERT BURNS.

Robert Burns, the chief of the peasant poets of Scotland, was born in a little mud-walled cottage on the banks of Doon, near “Alloway’s auld haunted kirk,” in the shire of Ayr, on the 25th day of January, 1759. As a natural mark of the event, a sudden storm at the same moment swept the land: the gabel-wall of the frail dwelling gave way, and the babe-bard was hurried through a tempest of wind and sleet to the shelter of a securer hovel. He was the eldest born of three sons and three daughters; his father, William, who in his native Kincardineshire wrote his name Burness, was bred a gardener, and sought for work in the West; but coming from the lands of the noble family of the Keiths, a suspicion accompanied him that he had been out—as rebellion was softly called—in the forty-five: a suspicion fatal to his hopes of rest and bread, in so loyal a district; and it was only when the clergyman of his native parish certified his loyalty that he was permitted to toil. This suspicion of Jacobitism, revived by Burns himself, when he rose into fame, seems not to have influenced either the feelings, or the tastes of Agnes Brown, a young woman on the Doon, whom he wooed and married in December, 1757, when he was thirty-six years old. To support her, he leased a small piece of ground, which he converted into a nursery and garden, and to shelter her, he raised with his own hands that humble abode where she gave birth to her eldest son.

The elder Burns was a well-informed, silent, austere man, who endured no idle gaiety, nor indecorous language: while he relaxed somewhat the hard, stern creed of the Covenanting times, he enforced all the work-day, as well as sabbath-day observances, which the Calvinistic kirk requires, and scrupled at promiscuous dancing, as the staid of our own day scruple at the waltz. His wife was of a milder mood: she was blest with a singular fortitude of temper; was as devout of heart, as she was calm of mind; and loved, while busied in her household concerns, to sweeten the bitterer moments of life, by chanting the songs and ballads of her country, of which her store was great. The garden and nursery prospered so much, that he was induced to widen his views, and by the help of his kind landlord, the laird of Doonholm, and the more questionable aid of borrowed money, he entered upon a neighbouring farm, named Mount Oliphant, extending to an hundred acres. This was in 1765; but the land was hungry and sterile; the seasons proved rainy and rough; the toil was certain, the reward unsure; when to his sorrow, the laird of Doonholm—a generous Ferguson,—died: the strict terms of the lease, as well as the rent, were exacted by a harsh factor, and with his wife and children, he was obliged, after a losing struggle of six years, to relinquish the farm, and seek shelter on the grounds of Lochlea, some ten miles off, in the parish of Tarbolton. When, in after-days, men’s characters were in the hands of his eldest son, the scoundrel factor sat for that lasting portrait of insolence and wrong, in the “Twa Dogs.”

In this new farm William Burns seemed to strike root, and thrive. He was strong of body and ardent of mind: every day brought increase of vigour to his three sons, who, though very young, already put their hands to the plough, the reap-hook, and the flail. But it seemed that nothing which he undertook was decreed in the end to prosper: after four seasons of prosperity a change ensued: the farm was far from cheap; the gains under any lease were then so little, that the loss of a few pounds was ruinous to a farmer: bad seed and wet seasons had their usual influence: “The gloom of hermits and the moil of galley-slaves,” as the poet, alluding to those days, said, were endured to no purpose; when, to crown all, a difference arose between the landlord and the tenant, as to the terms of the lease; and the early days of the poet, and the declining years of his father, were harassed by disputes, in which sensitive minds are sure to suffer.

Amid these labours and disputes, the poet’s father remembered the worth of religious and moral instruction: he took part of this upon himself. A week-day in Lochlea wore the sober looks of a Sunday: he read the Bible and explained, as intelligent peasants are accustomed to do, the sense, when dark or difficult; he loved to discuss the spiritual meanings, and gaze on the mystical splendours of the Revelations. He was aided in these labours, first, by the schoolmaster of Alloway-mill, near the Doon; secondly, by John Murdoch, student of divinity, who undertook to teach arithmetic, grammar, French, and Latin, to the boys of Lochlea, and the sons of five neighboring farmers. Murdoch, who was an enthusiast in learning, much of a pedant, and such a judge of genius that he thought wit should always be laughing, and poetry wear an eternal smile, performed his task well: he found Robert to be quick in apprehension, and not afraid to study when knowledge was the reward. He taught him to turn verse into its natural prose order; to supply all the ellipses, and not to desist till the sense was clear and plain: he also, in their walks, told him the names of different objects both in Latin and French; and though his knowledge of these languages never amounted to much, he approached the grammar of the English tongue, through the former, which was of material use to him, in his poetic compositions. Burns was, even in those early days, a sort of enthusiast in all that concerned the glory of Scotland; he used to fancy himself a soldier of the days of the Wallace and the Bruce: loved to strut after the bag-pipe and the drum, and read of the bloody struggles of his country for freedom and existence, till “a Scottish prejudice,” he says, “was poured into my veins, which will boil there till the flood-gates of life are shut in eternal rest.”

In this mood of mind Burns was unconsciously approaching the land of poesie. In addition to the histories of the Wallace and the Bruce, he found, on the shelves of his neighbours, not only whole bodies of divinity, and sermons without limit, but the works of some of the best English, as well as Scottish poets, together with songs and ballads innumerable. On these he loved to pore whenever a moment of leisure came; nor was verse his sole favourite; he desired to drink knowledge at any fountain, and Guthrie’s Grammar, Dickson on Agriculture, Addison’s Spectator, Locke on the Human Understanding, and Taylor’s Scripture Doctrine of Original Sin, were as welcome to his heart as Shakspeare, Milton, Pope, Thomson, and Young. There is a mystery in the workings of genius: with these poets in his head and hand, we see not that he has advanced one step in the way in which he was soon to walk, “Highland Mary” and “Tam O’ Shanter” sprang from other inspirations.

Burns lifts up the veil himself, from the studies which made him a poet. “In my boyish days,” he says to Moore, “I owed much to an old woman (Jenny Wilson) who resided in the family, remarkable for her credulity and superstition. She had, I suppose, the largest collection in the country of tales and songs, concerning devils, ghosts, fairies, brownies, witches, warlocks, spunkies, kelpies, elf-candles, dead-lights, wraiths, apparitions, cantraips, giants, enchanted towers, dragons, and other trumpery. This cultivated the latent seeds of poesie; but had so strong an effect upon my imagination that to this hour, in my nocturnal rambles, I sometimes keep a look-out on suspicious places.” Here we have the young poet taking lessons in the classic lore of his native land: in the school of Janet Wilson he profited largely; her tales gave a hue, all their own, to many noble effusions. But her teaching was at the hearth-stone: when he was in the fields, either driving a cart or walking to labour, he had ever in his hand a collection of songs, such as any stall in the land could supply him with; and over these he pored, ballad by ballad, and verse by verse, noting the true, tender, and the natural sublime from affectation and fustian. “To this,” he said, “I am convinced that I owe much of my critic craft, such as it is.” His mother, too, unconsciously led him in the ways of the muse: she loved to recite or sing to him a strange, but clever ballad, called “the Life and Age of Man:” this strain of piety and imagination was in his mind when he wrote “Man was made to Mourn.”

He found other teachers—of a tenderer nature and softer influence. “You know,” he says to Moore, “our country custom of coupling a man and woman together as partners in the labours of harvest. In my fifteenth autumn my partner was a bewitching creature, a year younger than myself: she was in truth a bonnie, sweet, sonsie lass, and unwittingly to herself, initiated me in that delicious passion, which, in spite of acid disappointment, gin-horse prudence, and bookworm philosophy, I hold to be the first of human joys. How she caught the contagion I cannot tell; I never expressly said I loved her: indeed I did not know myself why I liked so much to loiter behind with her, when returning in the evenings from our labours; why the tones of her voice made my heart strings thrill like an Æolian harp, and particularly why my pulse beat such a furious ratan, when I looked and fingered over her little hand, to pick out the cruel nettle-stings and thistles. Among other love-inspiring qualities, she sang sweetly, and it was her favourite reel to which I attempted to give an embodied vehicle in rhyme; thus with me began love and verse.” This intercourse with the fair part of the creation, was to his slumbering emotions, a voice from heaven to call them into life and poetry.

From the school of traditionary lore and love, Burns now went to a rougher academy. Lochlea, though not producing fine crops of corn, was considered excellent for flax; and while the cultivation of this commodity was committed to his father and his brother Gilbert, he was sent to Irvine at Midsummer, 1781, to learn the trade of a flax-dresser, under one Peacock, kinsman to his mother. Some time before, he had spent a portion of a summer at a school in Kirkoswald, learning mensuration and land-surveying, where he had mingled in scenes of sociality with smugglers, and enjoyed the pleasure of a silent walk, under the moon, with the young and the beautiful. At Irvine he laboured by day to acquire a knowledge of his business, and at night he associated with the gay and the thoughtless, with whom he learnt to empty his glass, and indulge in free discourse on topics forbidden at Lochlea. He had one small room for a lodging, for which he gave a shilling a week: meat he seldom tasted, and his food consisted chiefly of oatmeal and potatoes sent from his father’s house. In a letter to his father, written with great purity and simplicity of style, he thus gives a picture of himself, mental and bodily: “Honoured Sir, I have purposely delayed writing, in the hope that I should have the pleasure of seeing you on new years’ day, but work comes so hard upon us that I do not choose to be absent on that account. My health is nearly the same as when you were here, only my sleep is a little sounder, and on the whole, I am rather better than otherwise, though I mend by very slow degrees: the weakness of my nerves had so debilitated my mind that I dare neither review past wants nor look forward into futurity, for the least anxiety or perturbation in my breast produces most unhappy effects on my whole frame. Sometimes indeed, when for an hour or two my spirits are a little lightened, I glimmer a little into futurity; but my principal and indeed my only pleasurable employment is looking backwards and forwards in a moral and religious way. I am quite transported at the thought that ere long, perhaps very soon, I shall bid an eternal adieu to all the pains and uneasinesses, and disquietudes of this weary life. As for the world, I despair of ever making a figure in it: I am not formed for the bustle of the busy, nor the flutter of the gay. I foresee that poverty and obscurity probably await me, and I am in some measure prepared and daily preparing to meet them. I have but just time and paper to return you my grateful thanks for the lessons of virtue and piety you have given me, which were but too much neglected at the time of giving them, but which, I hope, have been remembered ere it is yet too late.” This remarkable letter was written in the twenty-second year of his age; it alludes to the illness which seems to have been the companion of his youth, a nervous headache, brought on by constant toil and anxiety; and it speaks of the melancholy which is the common attendant of genius, and its sensibilities, aggravated by despair of distinction. The catastrophe which happened ere this letter was well in his father’s hand, accords ill with quotations from the Bible, and hopes fixed in heaven:—“As we gave,” he says, “a welcome carousal to the new year, the shop took fire, and burnt to ashes, and I was left, like a true poet, not worth a sixpence.”

This disaster was followed by one more grievous: his father was well in years when he was married, and age and a constitution injured by toil and disappointment, began to press him down, ere his sons had grown up to man’s estate. On all sides the clouds began to darken: the farm was unprosperous: the speculations in flax failed; and the landlord of Lochlea, raising a question upon the meaning of the lease, concerning rotation of crop, pushed the matter to a lawsuit, alike ruinous to a poor man either in its success or its failure. “After three years tossing and whirling,” says Burns, “in the vortex of litigation, my father was just saved from the horrors of a jail by a consumption, which, after two years’ promises, kindly slept in and carried him away to where the ‘wicked cease from troubling and the weary are at rest.’ His all went among the hell-hounds that prowl in the kennel of justice. The finishing evil which brought up the rear of this infernal file, was my constitutional melancholy being increased to such a degree, that for three months I was in a state of mind scarcely to be envied by the hopeless wretches who have got their mittimus, ‘Depart from me, ye cursed.’”

Robert Burns was now the head of his father’s house. He gathered together the little that law and misfortune had spared, and took the farm of Mossgiel, near Mauchline, containing one hundred and eighteen acres, at a rent of ninety pounds a year: his mother and sisters took the domestic superintendence of home, barn, and byre; and he associated his brother Gilbert in the labours of the land. It was made a joint affair: the poet was young, willing, and vigorous, and excelled in ploughing, sowing, reaping, mowing, and thrashing. His wages were fixed at seven pounds per annum, and such for a time was his care and frugality, that he never exceeded this small allowance. He purchased books on farming, held conversations with the old and the knowing; and said unto himself, “I shall be prudent and wise, and my shadow shall increase in the land.” But it was not decreed that these resolutions were to endure, and that he was to become a mighty agriculturist in the west. Farmer Attention, as the proverb says, is a good farmer, all the world over, and Burns was such by fits and by starts. But he who writes an ode on the sheep he is about to shear, a poem on the flower that he covers with the furrow, who sees visions on his way to market, who makes rhymes on the horse he is about to yoke, and a song on the girl who shows the whitest hands among his reapers, has small chance of leading a market, or of being laird of the fields he rents. The dreams of Burns were of the muses, and not of rising markets, of golden locks rather than of yellow corn: he had other faults. It is not known that William Burns was aware before his death that his eldest son had sinned in rhyme; but we have Gilbert’s assurance, that his father went to the grave in ignorance of his son’s errors of a less venial kind—unwitting that he was soon to give a two-fold proof of both in “Rob the Rhymer’s Address to his Bastard Child”—a poem less decorous than witty.

The dress and condition of Burns when he became a poet were not at all poetical, in the minstrel meaning of the word. His clothes, coarse and homely, were made from home-grown wool, shorn off his own sheeps’ backs, carded and spun at his own fireside, woven by the village weaver, and, when not of natural hodden-gray, dyed a half-blue in the village vat. They were shaped and sewed by the district tailor, who usually wrought at the rate of a groat a day and his food; and as the wool was coarse, so also was the workmanship. The linen which he wore was home-grown, home-hackled, home-spun, home-woven, and home-bleached, and, unless designed for Sunday use, was of coarse, strong harn, to suit the tear and wear of barn and field. His shoes came from rustic tanpits, for most farmers then prepared their own leather; were armed, sole and heel, with heavy, broad-headed nails, to endure the clod and the road: as hats were then little in use, save among small lairds or country gentry, westland heads were commonly covered with a coarse, broad, blue bonnet, with a stopple on its flat crown, made in thousands at Kilmarnock, and known in all lands by the name of scone bonnets. His plaid was a handsome red and white check—for pride in poets, he said, was no sin—prepared of fine wool with more than common care by the hands of his mother and sisters, and woven with more skill than the village weaver was usually required to exert. His dwelling was in keeping with his dress, a low, thatched house, with a kitchen, a bedroom and closet, with floors of kneaded clay, and ceilings of moorland turf: a few books on a shelf, thumbed by many a thumb; a few hams drying above head in the smoke, which was in no haste to get out at the roof—a wooden settle, some oak chairs, chaff beds well covered with blankets, with a fire of peat and wood burning at a distance from the gable wall, on the middle of the floor. His food was as homely as his habitation, and consisted chiefly of oatmeal-porridge, barley-broth, and potatoes, and milk. How the muse happened to visit him in this clay biggin, take a fancy to a clouterly peasant, and teach him strains of consummate beauty and elegance, must ever be a matter of wonder to all those, and they are not few, who hold that noble sentiments and heroic deeds are the exclusive portion of the gently nursed and the far descended.

Of the earlier verses of Burns few are preserved: when composed, he put them on paper, but the kept them to himself: though a poet at sixteen, he seems not to have made even his brother his confidante till he became a man, and his judgment had ripened. He, however, made a little clasped paper book his treasurer, and under the head of “Observations, Hints, Songs, and Scraps of Poetry,” we find many a wayward and impassioned verse, songs rising little above the humblest country strain, or bursting into an elegance and a beauty worthy of the highest of minstrels. The first words noted down are the stanzas which he composed on his fair companion of the harvest-field, out of whose hands he loved to remove the nettle-stings and the thistles: the prettier song, beginning “Now westlin win’s and slaughtering guns,” written on the lass of Kirkoswald, with whom, instead of learning mensuration, he chose to wander under the light of the moon: a strain better still, inspired by the charms of a neighbouring maiden, of the name of Annie Ronald; another, of equal merit, arising out of his nocturnal adventures among the lasses of the west; and, finally, that crowning glory of all his lyric compositions, “Green grow the rashes.” This little clasped book, however, seems not to have been made his confidante till his twenty-third or twenty-fourth year: he probably admitted to its pages only the strains which he loved most, or such as had taken a place in his memory: at whatever age it was commenced, he had then begun to estimate his own character, and intimate his fortunes, for he calls himself in its pages “a man who had little art in making money, and still less in keeping it.”

We have not been told how welcome the incense of his songs rendered him to the rustic maidens of Kyle: women are not apt to be won by the charms of verse; they have little sympathy with dreamers on Parnassus, and allow themselves to be influenced by something more substantial than the roses and lilies of the muse. Burns had other claims to their regard then those arising from poetic skill: he was tall, young, good-looking, with dark, bright eyes, and words and wit at will: he had a sarcastic sally for all lads who presumed to cross his path, and a soft, persuasive word for all lasses on whom he fixed his fancy: nor was this all—he was adventurous and bold in love trystes and love excursions: long, rough roads, stormy nights, flooded rivers, and lonesome places, were no letts to him; and when the dangers or labours of the way were braved, he was alike skilful in eluding vigilant aunts, wakerife mothers, and envious or suspicions sisters: for rivals he had a blow as ready us he had a word, and was familiar with snug stack-yards, broomy glens, and nooks of hawthorn and honeysuckle, where maidens love to be wooed. This rendered him dearer to woman’s heart than all the lyric effusions of his fancy; and when we add to such allurements, a warm, flowing, and persuasive eloquence, we need not wonder that woman listened and was won; that one of the most charming damsels of the West said, an hour with him in the dark was worth a lifetime of light with any other body; or that the accomplished and beautiful Duchess of Gordon declared, in a latter day, that no man ever carried her so completely off her feet as Robert Burns.

It is one of the delusions of the poet’s critics and biographers, that the sources of his inspiration are to be found in the great classic poets of the land, with some of whom he had from his youth been familiar: there is little or no trace of them in any of his compositions. He read and wondered—he warmed his fancy at their flame, he corrected his own natural taste by theirs, but he neither copied nor imitated, and there are but two or three allusions to Young and Shakspeare in all the range of his verse. He could not but feel that he was the scholar of a different school, and that his thirst was to be slaked at other fountains. The language in which those great bards embodied their thoughts was unapproachable to an Ayrshire peasant; it was to him as an almost foreign tongue: he had to think and feel in the not ungraceful or inharmonious language of his own vale, and then, in a manner, translate it into that of Pope or of Thomson, with the additional difficulty of finding English words to express the exact meaning of those of Scotland, which had chiefly been retained because equivalents could not be found in the more elegant and grammatical tongue. Such strains as those of the polished Pope or the sublimer Milton were beyond his power, less from deficiency of genius than from lack of language: he could, indeed, write English with ease and fluency; but when he desired to be tender or impassioned, to persuade or subdue, he had recourse to the Scottish, and he found it sufficient.

The goddesses or the Dalilahs of the young poet’s song were, like the language in which he celebrated them, the produce of the district; not dames high and exalted, but lasses of the barn and of the byre, who had never been in higher company than that of shepherds or ploughmen, or danced in a politer assembly than that of their fellow-peasants, on a barn-floor, to the sound of the district fiddle. Nor even of these did he choose the loveliest to lay out the wealth of his verse upon: he has been accused, by his brother among others, of lavishing the colours of his fancy on very ordinary faces. “He had always,” says Gilbert, “a jealousy of people who were richer than himself; his love, therefore, seldom settled on persons of this description. When he selected any one, out of the sovereignty of his good pleasure, to whom he should pay his particular attention, she was instantly invested with a sufficient stock of charms out of the plentiful stores of his own imagination: and there was often a great dissimilitude between his fair captivator, as she appeared to others and as she seemed when invested with the attributes he gave her.” “My heart,” he himself, speaking of those days, observes, “was completely tinder, and was eternally lighted up by some goddess or other.” Yet, it must be acknowledged that sufficient room exists for believing that Burns and his brethren of the West had very different notions of the captivating and the beautiful; while they were moved by rosy checks and looks of rustic health, he was moved, like a sculptor, by beauty of form or by harmony of motion, and by expression, which lightened up ordinary features and rendered them captivating. Such, I have been told, were several of the lasses of the West, to whom, if he did not surrender his heart, he rendered homage: and both elegance of form and beauty of face were visible to all in those of whom he afterwards sang—the Hamiltons and the Burnets of Edinburgh, and the Millers and M’Murdos of the Nith.