Pensées E-Book

Blaise Pascal

• Herausgeber: Youcanprint
• Kategorie: Gesellschafts- und Liebesromane
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Beschreibung

Pascal's Pensées' is a collection of fragments on theology and philosophy written by 17th-century philosopher and mathematician Blaise Pascal. Pascal's religious conversion led him into a life of asceticism and the Pensées was in many ways his life's work. This book represented Pascal's defense of the Christian religion. The concept of "Pascal's Wager" stems from a portion of this work.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION

SECTION I

THOUGHTS ON MIND AND ON STYLE

SECTION II

THE MISERY OF MAN WITHOUT GOD

SECTION III

OF THE NECESSITY OF THE WAGER

SECTION IV

OF THE MEANS OF BELIEF

SECTION V

JUSTICE AND THE REASON OF EFFECTS

SECTION VI

THE PHILOSOPHERS

SECTION VII

MORALITY AND DOCTRINE

SECTION VIII

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION

SECTION IX

PERPETUITY

SECTION X

TYPOLOGY

SECTION XI

THE PROPHECIES

SECTION XII

PROOFS OF JESUS CHRIST

SECTION XIII

THE MIRACLES

SECTION XIV

APPENDIX: POLEMICAL FRAGMENTS

 

 

Pensées

Blaise Pascal

First digital edition 2017 by Anna Ruggieri

INTRODUCTION

It might seem that about Blaise Pascal, and about the two worksonwhich his fame is founded, everything that there is to say hadbeen said. The details of his life are as fully known as we canexpect to know them; his mathematical and physical discoveries havebeen treated many times; his religious sentiment and histheological views have been discussed again and again; and hisprose style has been analysed by French critics down to the finestparticular. But Pascal is one of those writers who will be and whomust be studied afresh by men in every generation. It is not he whochanges, but we who change. It is not our knowledge of him thatincreases, but our world that alters and our attitudes towards it.The history of human opinions of Pascal and of men of his statureis a part of the history of humanity. That indicateshis permanentimportance.

The facts of Pascal's life, so far as they are necessary forthis brief introduction to thePensées, are as follows. He wasborn at Clermont, in Auvergne, in 1623. His family were people ofsubstance of the upper middle class. Hisfather was a governmentofficial, who was able to leave, when he died, a sufficientpatrimony to his one son and his two daughters. In 1631 the fathermoved to Paris, and a few years later took up another governmentpost at Rouen. Wherever he lived, the elder Pascal seems to havemingled with some of the best society, and with men of eminence inscience and the arts. Blaise was educated entirely by his father athome. He was exceedingly precocious, indeed excessively precocious,for his application to studies in childhood and adolescenceimpaired his health, and is held responsible for his death atthirty-nine. Prodigious, though not incredible stories arepreserved, especially of his precocity in mathematics. His mind wasactive rather than accumulative; he showed from his earliest yearsthat disposition to find things out for himself, which hascharacterised the infancy of Clerk-Maxwell and other scientists. Ofhis later discoveries in physics there is no need for mention here;it must only be remembered that he counts as one of the greatestphysicists and mathematicians of all time; and that his discoverieswere made during the years when most scientists are stillapprentices.

The elder Pascal, Étienne, was a sincere Christian. About1646 he fell in with some representatives of the religious revivalwithin the Church which has become known as Jansenism—afterJansenius, Bishop of Ypres, whose theological work is taken as theorigin of the movement. This period is usually spoken of as themoment of Pascal's "first conversion." The word "conversion,"however, is too forcible to be applied at this point to BlaisePascal himself. The family had always been devout, and the youngerPascal, though absorbed in his scientific work, never seems to havebeen afflicted with infidelity. Hisattention was then directed,certainly, to religious and theological matters; but the term"conversion" can only be applied to his sisters—the elder,already Madame Périer, and particularly the younger,Jacqueline, who at that time conceived a vocation for the religiouslife. Pascal himself was by no means disposed to renounce theworld. After the death of the father in 1650 Jacqueline, a youngwoman of remarkable strength and beauty of character, wished totake her vows as a sister of Port-Royal, and for some time her wishremained unfulfilled owing to the opposition of her brother. Hisobjection was on the purely worldly ground that she wished to makeover her patrimony to the Order; whereas while she lived with him,their combined resources made it possible for him to live morenearly on a scale of expense congenial to his tastes. He liked, infact, not only to mix with the best society, but to keep a coachand horses—six horses is the number at one time attributed tohis carriage. Though he had no legal power to prevent his sisterfrom disposing of her property as she elected, the amiableJacqueline shrank from doing so without her brother's willingapproval. The Mother Superior, MèreAngélique—herself an eminent personage in the history ofthis religious movement—finally persuaded the young novice toenter the order without the satisfaction of bringing her patrimonywith her; but Jacqueline remained so distressed by this situationthat her brother finally relented.

So far as is known, the worldly life enjoyed by Pascal duringthis period can hardly be qualified as "dissipation," and certainlynot as "debauchery." Even gambling may have appealed to him chieflyas affording a study of mathematical probabilities. He appears tohave led sucha life as any cultivated intellectual man of goodposition and independent means might lead and consider himself amodel of probity and virtue. Not even a love-affair is laid at hisdoor, though he is said to have contemplated marriage. ButJansenism, asrepresented by the religious society of Port-Royal,was morally a Puritan movement within the Church, and its standardsof conduct were at least as severe as those of any Puritanism inEngland or America. The period of fashionable society, in Pascal'slife, is however, of great importance in his development. Itenlarged his knowledge of men and refined his tastes; he became aman of the world and never lost what he had learnt; and when heturned his thoughts wholly towards religion, his worldly knowledgewas a part of his composition which is essential to the value ofhis work.

Pascal's interest in society did not distract him fromscientific research; nor did this period occupy much space in whatis a very short and crowded life. Partly his naturaldissatisfaction with such a life, once he had learned all it had toteach him, partly the influence of his saintly sister Jacqueline,partly increasing suffering as his health declined, directed himmore and more out of the world and to thoughts of eternity. And in1654 occurs what is called his "second conversion," but which mightbe called his conversion simply.

He made a note of his mystical experience, which he kept alwaysabout him, and which was found, after his death, sewn into the coatwhich he was wearing.The experience occurred on 23 November, 1654,and there is no reason to doubt its genuineness unless we choose todeny all mystical experience. Now, Pascal was not a mystic, and hisworks are not to be classified amongst mystical writings; but whatcan only be called mystical experience happens to many men who donot become mystics. The work which he undertook soonafter,theLettres écrites à un provincial, is a masterpiece ofreligious controversy at the opposite pole from mysticism. We knowquite well that he was at the time when he received hisillumination from God in extremely poor health; but it is acommonplace that some forms of illness are extremely favourable,not only to religious illumination, but to artistic and literarycomposition. A piece of writing meditated, apparently withoutprogress, for months or years, may suddenly take shape and word;and in this state long passages may be produced which requirelittle or no retouch. I have no good word to say for thecultivation of automatic writingas the model of literarycomposition; I doubt whether these momentscanbe cultivated by thewriter; but he to whom this happens assuredly has the sensation ofbeing a vehicle rather than a maker. No masterpiece can be producedwhole by such means; but neither does even the higher form ofreligious inspiration suffice for the religious life; even the mostexalted mystic must return to the world, and use his reason toemploy the results of his experience in daily life. You may call itcommunion with the Divine, or you may call it a temporarycrystallisation of the mind. Until science can teach us toreproduce such phenomena at will, science cannot claim to haveexplained them; and they can be judged only by their fruits.

From that time until his death, Pascal was closely associatedwith the society of Port-Royal which his sister Jacqueline, whopredeceased him, had joined as areligieuse; the society was thenfighting for its life against the Jesuits. Five propositions,judged by a committee of cardinals andtheologians at Rome to beheretical, were found to be put forward in the work of Jansenius;and the society of Port-Royal, the representative of Jansenismamong devotional communities, suffered a blow from which it neverrevived. It is not the place here to review the bitter controversyand conflict; the best account, from the point of view of a criticof genius who took no side, who was neither Jansenist nor Jesuit,Christian nor infidel, is that in the great book ofSainte-Beuve,Port-Royal. And in this book the parts devoted toPascal himself are among the most brilliant pages of criticism thatSainte-Beuve ever wrote. It is sufficient to notice that the nextoccupation of Pascal, after his conversion, was to write theseeighteen "Letters," which as proseare of capital importance in thefoundation of French classical style, and which as polemic aresurpassed by none, not by Demosthenes, or Cicero, or Swift. Theyhave the limitation of all polemic and forensic: they persuade,they seduce, they are unfair.But it is also unfair to assert that,in theseLetters to a Provincial, Pascal was attacking the Societyof Jesus in itself. He was attacking rather a particular school ofcasuistry which relaxed the requirements of the Confessional; aschool which certainly flourished amongst the Society of Jesus atthat time, and of which the Spaniards Escobar and Molina are themost eminent authorities. He undoubtedly abused the art ofquotation, as a polemical writer can hardly help but do; but therewere abuses for himto abuse; and he did the job thoroughly.HisLettersmust not be called theology. Academic theology was not adepartment in which Pascal was versed; when necessary, the fathersof Port-Royal came to his aid. TheLettersare the work of one of thefinest mathematical minds of any time, and of a man of the worldwho addressed, not theologians, but the world in general—allof the cultivated and many of the less cultivated of the Frenchlaity; and with this public they made an astonishing success.

During thistime Pascal never wholly abandoned his scientificinterests. Though in his religious writings he composed slowly andpainfully, and revised often, in matters of mathematics his mindseemed to move with consummate natural ease and grace. Discoveriesand inventions sprang from his brain without effort; among theminor devices of this later period, the first omnibus service inParis is said to owe its origin to his inventiveness. But rapidlyfailing health, and absorption in the great work he had in mind,lefthim little time and energy during the last two years of hislife.

The plan of what we call thePenséesformed itself about1660. The completed book was to have been a carefully constructeddefence of Christianity, a true Apology and a kind of Grammar ofAssent, setting forth the reasons which will convince theintellect. As I have indicated before, Pascal was not a theologian,and on dogmatic theology had recourse to his spiritual advisers.Nor was he indeed a systematic philosopher. He was a man with animmense genius for science, and at the same time a naturalpsychologist and moralist. As he was a great literary artist, hisbook would have been also his own spiritual autobiography; hisstyle, free from all diminishing idiosyncrasies, was yet verypersonal. Above all, he was a man of strong passions; and hisintellectual passion for truth was reinforced by his passionatedissatisfaction with human life unless a spiritual explanationcould be found.

We must regard thePenséesas merely the first notes forawork which he left far from completion; we have, in Sainte-Beuve'swords, a tower of which the stones have been laid on each other,but not cemented, and the structure unfinished. In early years hismemory had been amazingly retentive of anything that hewished toremember; and had it not been impaired by increasing illness andpain, he probably would not have been obliged to set down thesenotes at all. But taking the book as it is left to us, we stillfind that it occupies a unique place in the history of Frenchliterature and in the history of religious meditation.

To understand the method which Pascal employs, the reader mustbe prepared to follow the process of the mind of the intelligentbeliever. The Christian thinker—and I mean the man who istryingconsciously and conscientiously to explain to himself thesequence which culminated in faith, rather than the publicapologist—proceeds by rejection and elimination. He finds theworld to be so and so; he finds its character inexplicable by anynon-religious theory; among religions he finds Christianity, andCatholic Christianity, to account most satisfactorily for the worldand especially for the moral world within; and thus, by what Newmancalls "powerful and concurrent" reasons, he finds himselfinexorably committed to the dogma of the Incarnation. To theunbeliever, this method seems disingenuous and perverse; for theunbeliever is, as a rule, not so greatly troubled to explain theworld to himself, nor so greatly distressed by its disorder; nor ishe generally concerned (in modern terms) to "preserve values." Hedoes not consider that if certain emotional states, certaindevelopments of character, and what in the highest sense can becalled "saintliness" are inherently and by inspection known to begood, then the satisfactory explanation of the world must be anexplanation which will admit the "reality" of these values. Nordoes he consider such reasoning admissible; he would, so to speak,trim his values according to his cloth, because to him such valuesare of no great value. The unbeliever starts from the other end,and as likely as not with the question: Is a case of humanparthenogenesis credible? and this he would call going straight tothe heart of thematter. Now Pascal's method is, on the whole,themethod natural and right for the Christian; and the opposite methodis that taken by Voltaire. It is worth while to remember thatVoltaire, in his attempt to refute Pascal, has given once and forall the type of such refutation; and that later opponents ofPascal's Apology for the Christian Faith have contributed littlebeyond psychological irrelevancies. For Voltaire has presented,better than any one since, what is the unbelieving point of view;and in the end we must all choose for ourselves betweenone point ofview and another.

I have said above that Pascal's method is "on the whole" that ofthe typical Christian apologist; and this reservation was directedat Pascal's belief in miracles, which plays a larger part in hisconstruction than it would in that, at least, of the modern liberalCatholic. It would seem fantastic to accept Christianity because wefirst believe the Gospel miracles to be true, and it would seemimpious to accept it primarily because we believe more recentmiracles to be true; we accept the miracles, or some miracles, tobe true because we believe the Gospel of Jesus Christ: we found ourbelief in the miracles on the Gospel, not our belief in the Gospelon the miracles. But it must be remembered that Pascal had beendeeply impressed by a contemporary miracle, known as the miracle ofthe Holy Thorn: a thorn reputed to have been preserved from theCrown of Our Lord was pressed upon an ulcer which quickly healed.Sainte-Beuve, who as a medical man felt himself on solid ground,discusses fully the possible explanation of this apparent miracle.It is true that the miracle happened at Port-Royal, and that itarrived opportunely to revive the depressed spirits of thecommunity in its political afflictions; and it is likely thatPascal wasthe more inclined to believe a miracle which wasperformed upon his beloved sister. In any case, it probably led himto assign a place to miracles, in his study of faith, which is notquite that which we should give to them ourselves.

Now the great adversary against whom Pascal set himself, fromthe time of his first conversations with M. de Saci at Port-Royal,was Montaigne. One cannot destroy Pascal, certainly; but of allauthors Montaigne is one of the least destructible. You could aswell dissipate a fog by flinging hand-grenades into it. ForMontaigne is a fog, a gas, a fluid, insidious element. He does notreason, he insinuates, charms, and influences; or if he reasons,you must be prepared for his having some other design upon you thanto convince you by his argument. It is hardly too much to say thatMontaigne is the most essential author to know, if we wouldunderstand the course of French thought during the last threehundred years. In every way, the influence of Montaigne wasrepugnant to the menof Port-Royal. Pascal studied him with theintention of demolishing him. Yet, in thePensées, at the veryend of his life, we find passage after passage, and the slighterthey are the more significant, almost "lifted" out of Montaigne,down to a figure ofspeech or a word. The parallels[A]are most oftenwith the long essay of Montaigne calledApologie de RaymondSébond—an astonishing piece of writing upon whichShakespeare also probably drew inHamlet. Indeed, by the time a manknew Montaigne well enough to attack him, he would already bethoroughly infected by him.

It would, however, be grossly unfair to Pascal, to Montaigne,and indeed to French literature, to leave the matter at that. It isno diminution of Pascal, but only an aggrandisement of Montaigne.Had Montaigne been an ordinary life-sized sceptic, a smallman likeAnatole France, or even a greater man like Renan, or even like thegreatest sceptic of all, Voltaire, this "influence" would be to thediscredit of Pascal; but if Montaigne had been no more thanVoltaire, he could not have affected Pascal at all. The picture ofMontaigne which offers itself first to our eyes, that of theoriginal and independent solitary "personality," absorbed in amusedanalysis of himself, is deceptive. Montaigne's isnolimitedPyrrhonism, like that of Voltaire, Renan, or France. Heexists, so to speak, on a plan of numerous concentric circles, themost apparent of which is the small inmost circle, a personalpuckish scepticism which can be easily aped if not imitated.Butwhat makes Montaigne a very great figure is that he succeeded, Godknows how—for Montaigne very likely did not know that he haddone it—it is not the sort of thing that mencanobserve aboutthemselves, for it is essentially bigger than the individual'sconsciousness—he succeeded in giving expression to thescepticism ofeveryhuman being. For every man who thinks and livesby thought must have his own scepticism, that which stops at thequestion, that which ends in denial, or that which leads tofaithand which is somehow integrated into the faith whichtranscends it. And Pascal, as the type of one kind of religiousbeliever, which is highly passionate and ardent, but passionateonly through a powerful and regulated intellect, is in the firstsections of his unfinished Apology for Christianity facingunflinchingly the demon of doubt which is inseparable from thespirit of belief.

There is accordingly something quite different from an influencewhich would prove Pascal's weakness; there is a realaffinitybetween his doubt and that of Montaigne; and through thecommon kinship with Montaigne Pascal is related to the noble anddistinguished line of French moralists, from La Rochefoucauld down.In the honesty with which they face thedonnéesof the actualworld this French tradition has a unique quality in Europeanliterature, and in the seventeenth century Hobbes is crude anduncivilised in comparison.

Pascal is a man of the world among ascetics, and an asceticamong men of the world; he had the knowledge ofworldliness and thepassion of asceticism, and in him the two are fused into anindividual whole. The majority of mankind is lazy-minded,incurious, absorbed in vanities, and tepid in emotion, and istherefore incapable of either much doubt or much faith;and when theordinary man calls himself a sceptic or an unbeliever, that isordinarily a simple pose, cloaking a disinclination to thinkanything out to a conclusion. Pascal's disillusioned analysis ofhuman bondage is sometimes interpreted to mean that Pascal wasreally and finally an unbeliever, who, in his despair, wasincapable of enduring reality and enjoying the heroic satisfactionof the free man's worship of nothing. His despair, his disillusion,are, however, no illustration of personal weakness; they areperfectly objective, because they are essential moments in theprogress of the intellectual soul; and for the type of Pascal theyare the analogue of the drought, the dark night, which is anessential stage in the progress of the Christian mystic.A similardespair, when it is arrived at by a diseased character or an impuresoul, may issue in the most disastrous consequences though with themost superb manifestations; and thus we getGulliver's Travels; butin Pascal we find no such distortion; hisdespair is in itself moreterrible than Swift's, because our heart tells us that itcorresponds exactly to the facts and cannot be dismissed as mentaldisease; but it was also a despair which was a necessary preludeto, and element in, the joy of faith.

Ido not wish to enter any further than necessary upon thequestion of the heterodoxy of Jansenism; and it is no concern ofthis essay, whether the Five Propositions condemned at Rome werereally maintained by Jansenius in his bookAugustinus; or whetherweshould deplore or approve the consequent decay (indeed with somepersecution) of Port-Royal. It is impossible to discuss the matterwithout becoming involved as a controversialist either for oragainst Rome. But in a man of the type of Pascal—and thetypealways exists—there is, I think, an ingredient of whatmay be called Jansenism of temperament, without identifying it withthe Jansenism of Jansenius and of other devout and sincere, but notimmensely gifted doctors.[B]It is accordingly needful to state inbrief what the dangerous doctrine of Jansenius was, withoutadvancing too far into theological refinements. It is recognised inChristian theology—and indeed on a lower plane it isrecognised by all men in affairs of daily life—that freewillor the natural effort and ability of the individual man, and alsosupernaturalgrace, a gift accorded we know not quite how, are bothrequired, in co-operation, for salvation. Though numeroustheologians have set their wits at the problem, it ends in amystery which we can perceive but not finally decipher. At least,it is obvious that, like any doctrine, a slight excess or deviationto one side or the other will precipitate a heresy. The Pelagians,who were refuted by St. Augustine, emphasised the efficacy of humaneffort and belittled the importance of supernatural grace. TheCalvinists emphasised the degradation of man through Original Sin,and considered mankind so corrupt that the will was of no avail;and thus fell into the doctrine of predestination. It was uponthedoctrine of grace according to St. Augustine that the Jansenistsrelied; and theAugustinusof Jansenius was presented as a soundexposition of the Augustinian views.

Such heresies are never antiquated, because they forever assumenew forms. For instance, the insistence upon good works and"service" which is preached from many quarters, or the simple faiththat any one who lives a good and useful life need have no "morbid"anxieties about salvation, is a form of Pelagianism. On the otherhand, one sometimes hears enounced the view that it will make noreal difference if all the traditional religious sanctions formoral behaviour break down, because those who are born and bred tobe nice people will always prefer to behave nicely, and those whoare not will behave otherwise in any case: and this is surely aform of predestination—for the hazard of being born a niceperson or not is as uncertain as the gift of grace.

It is likely that Pascal was attracted as much by the fruits ofJansenism in the life of Port-Royal as by the doctrine itself. Thisdevout, ascetic, thoroughgoing society, striving heroically in themidst of a relaxed and easy-going Christianity, was formed toattract a nature so concentrated, so passionate, and sothoroughgoing as Pascal's. Butthe insistence upon the degraded andhelpless state of man, in Jansenism, is something also to which wemust be grateful, for to it we owe the magnificent analysis ofhuman motives and occupations which was to have constituted theearly part of his book.And apart from the Jansenism which is thework of a not very eminent bishop who wrote a Latin treatise whichis now unread, there is also, so to speak, a Jansenism of theindividual biography. A moment of Jansenism may naturally takeplace, and take placerightly, in the individual; particularly inthe life of a man of great and intense intellectual powers, whocannot avoid seeing through human beings and observing the vanityof their thoughts and of their avocations,their dishonesty andself-deceptions, the insincerity of their emotions, theircowardice, the pettiness of their real ambitions. Actually,considering that Pascal died at the age of thirty-nine, one must beamazed at the balance and justice of his observations; much greatermaturity is requiredfor these qualities, than for any mathematicalor scientific greatness. How easily his brooding onthe misery ofman without Godmight have encouraged in him the sin of spiritualpride, theconcupiscence de l'esprit, and how fast a hold he hasofhumility!

And although Pascal brings to his work the same powers which heexerted in science, it is not as a scientist that he presentshimself. He does not seem to say to the reader: I am one of themost distinguished scientists of the day; I understand many matterswhich will always be mysteries to you, and through science I havecome to the Faith; you therefore who are not initiated into scienceought to have faith if I have it. He is fully aware of thedifference of subject-matter; and his famous distinction betweentheesprit de géométrieand theesprit de finesseis one toponder over. It is the just combination of the scientist,thehonnête homme, and the religious nature with a passionatecraving for God, that makes Pascal unique. He succeeds whereDescartes fails; for in Descartes the element ofesprit degéométrieis excessive.[C]And in a few phrases aboutDescartes, in the present book, Pascal laid his finger on the placeof weakness.

He who reads this book will observe at once its fragmentarynature; but only after some study will perceive that thefragmentariness lies in the expression more than in the thought.The "thoughts" cannot be detached from each other and quoted as ifeach were complete in itself.Le cœur a ses raisons que laraison ne connaît point: how often one has heard that quoted,and quoted often to the wrong purpose! For this is by no means anexaltation of the "heart" over the "head," a defence of unreason.The heart, in Pascal's terminology, is itself truly rational if itis truly the heart. For him, in theological matters, which seemedto him much larger, more difficult, and more important thanscientific matters, the whole personality is involved.

We cannot quite understand any of the parts, fragmentary as theyare, without some understanding of the whole. Capital, forinstance, is his analysis of thethree orders: the order of nature,the order of mind, and the order of charity. These threearediscontinuous; the higher is not implicit in the lower as in anevolutionary doctrine it would be.[D]In this distinction Pascaloffers much about which the modern world would do well to think.And indeed, because of his unique combination and balance ofqualities, I know of no religious writer more pertinent to ourtime. The great mystics like St. John of the Cross, are primarilyfor readers with a special determination of purpose; the devotionalwriters, such as St. François de Sales, are primarily forthose who already feel consciously desirous of the love of God; thegreat theologiansare for those interested in theology. But I canthink of no Christian writer, not Newman even, more to be commendedthan Pascal to those who doubt, but who have the mind to conceive,and the sensibility to feel, the disorder, the futility, themeaninglessness, the mystery of life and suffering, and who canonly find peace through a satisfaction of the whole being.

T. S. Eliot.

SECTION I

THOUGHTS ON MIND AND ON STYLE

1

The difference between the mathematicaland the intuitivemind.[1]—In the one the principles are palpable, but removedfrom ordinary use; so that for want of habit it is difficult toturn one's mind in that direction: but if one turns it thither everso little, one sees the principles fully, and one must have a quiteinaccurate mind who reasons wrongly from principles so plain thatit is almost impossible they should escape notice.

But in the intuitive mind the principles are found in commonuse, and are before the eyes of everybody. One has only to look,and no effort is necessary; it is only a question of good eyesight,but it must be good, for the principles are so subtle and sonumerous, that it is almost impossible but that some escape notice.Now the omission of one principle leads to error; thus one musthave very clear sight to see all the principles, and in the nextplace an accurate mind not to draw false deductions from knownprinciples.