The Collected Works of John Dewey E-Book

John Dewey

• Herausgeber: PergamonMedia
• Kategorie: Gesellschafts- und Liebesromane
• Serie: Highlights of World Literature
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Seitenzahl: 4828

Beschreibung

This comprehensive eBook presents the complete works or all the significant works - the Œuvre - of this famous and brilliant writer in one ebook - 5870 pages easy-to-read and easy-to-navigate: • Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education • How We Think • Moral Principles in Education • The Child and the Curriculum • Human Nature and Conduct • Creative Intelligence: Essays in the Pragmatic Attitude, James Hayden Tufts, Addison Webster Moore, Harold Chapman Brown, George H. Mead, Boyd Henry Bode, Henry Waldgrave Stuart, and Horace Meyer Kallen • Reconstruction in Philosophy • Leibniz's New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding • Ethics and James Hayden Tufts • Psychology and Social Practice • Studies in Logical Theory • Letters from China and Japan and Harriet Alice Chipman Dewey • Essays in Experimental Logic • German philosophy and politics • China, Japan and the U.S.A. • etc.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

DEMOCRACY AND EDUCATION

Transcriber's Note:

Chapter One: Education as a Necessity of Life

Summary. It is the very nature of life to strive to continue in being.

Chapter Two: Education as a Social Function

Summary. The development within the young of the attitudes and

Chapter Three: Education as Direction

1. The Environment as Directive.

Summary. The natural or native impulses of the young do not agree with

Chapter Four: Education as Growth

1. The Conditions of Growth.

Summary. Power to grow depends upon need for others and plasticity.

Chapter Five: Preparation, Unfolding, and Formal Discipline

Summary. The conception that the result of the educative process is

Chapter Six: Education as Conservative and Progressive

Summary. Education may be conceived either retrospectively or

Chapter Seven: The Democratic Conception in Education

Summary. Since education is a social process, and there are many kinds

Chapter Eight: Aims in Education

1. The Nature of an Aim.

Summary. An aim denotes the result of any natural process brought to

Chapter Nine: Natural Development and Social Efficiency as Aims

Summary. General or comprehensive aims are points of view for surveying

1 Donaldson, Growth of Brain, p. 356.

Chapter Ten: Interest and Discipline

Summary. Interest and discipline are correlative aspects of activity

Chapter Eleven: Experience and Thinking

Summary. In determining the place of thinking in experience we first

Chapter Twelve: Thinking in Education

Summary. Processes of instruction are unified in the degree in which

Chapter Thirteen: The Nature of Method

1. The Unity of Subject Matter and Method.

Summary. Method is a statement of the way the subject matter of an

Chapter Fourteen: The Nature of Subject Matter

Summary. The subject matter of education consists primarily of the

Chapter Fifteen: Play and Work in the Curriculum

Summary. In the previous chapter we found that the primary subject

Chapter Sixteen: The Significance of Geography and History

Summary. It is the nature of an experience to have implications which

Chapter Seventeen: Science in the Course of Study

Summary. Science represents the fruition of the cognitive factors in

Chapter Eighteen: Educational Values

Summary. Fundamentally, the elements involved in a discussion of value

Chapter Nineteen: Labor and Leisure

1. The Origin of the Opposition.

Summary. Of the segregations of educational values discussed in the

Chapter Twenty: Intellectual and Practical Studies

Summary. The Greeks were induced to philosophize by the increasing

Chapter Twenty-one: Physical and Social Studies: Naturalism and Humanism

Summary. The philosophic dualism between man and nature is reflected in

Chapter Twenty-two: The Individual and the World

Summary. True individualism is a product of the relaxation of the grip

Chapter Twenty-Three: Vocational Aspects of Education

Summary. A vocation signifies any form of continuous activity which

Chapter Twenty-four: Philosophy of Education

Summary. After a review designed to bring out the philosophic issues

Chapter Twenty-five: Theories of Knowledge

Summary. Such social divisions as interfere with free and full

Chapter Twenty-six: Theories of Morals

1. The Inner and the Outer.

Summary. The most important problem of moral education in the school

HOW WE THINK

JOHN DEWEY

PREFACE

CONTENTS

HOW WE THINK

PART ONE: THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING THOUGHT

CHAPTER ONE

WHAT IS THOUGHT?

CHAPTER TWO

THE NEED FOR TRAINING THOUGHT

CHAPTER THREE

NATURAL RESOURCES IN THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT

CHAPTER FOUR

SCHOOL CONDITIONS AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT

CHAPTER FIVE

THE MEANS AND END OF MENTAL TRAINING: THE PSYCHOLOGICAL AND THE LOGICAL

PART TWO: LOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

CHAPTER SIX

THE ANALYSIS OF A COMPLETE ACT OF THOUGHT

CHAPTER SEVEN

SYSTEMATIC INFERENCE: INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION

CHAPTER EIGHT

JUDGMENT: THE INTERPRETATION OF FACTS

CHAPTER NINE

MEANING: OR CONCEPTIONS AND UNDERSTANDING

CHAPTER TEN

CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT THINKING

CHAPTER ELEVEN

EMPIRICAL AND SCIENTIFIC THINKING

PART THREE: THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT

CHAPTER TWELVE

ACTIVITY AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

LANGUAGE AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

OBSERVATION AND INFORMATION IN THE TRAINING OF MIND

CHAPTER FIFTEEN

THE RECITATION AND THE TRAINING OF THOUGHT

CHAPTER SIXTEEN

SOME GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

MORAL PRINCIPLES IN EDUCATION

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

Education as a public business

Education as expert service

The relations of expert opinion and public opinion

The discussion of moral education an illustration of mistaken views of laymen

A fundamental understanding of moral principles in education

I THE MORAL PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL

THE MORAL TRAINING GIVEN BY THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY

II THE MORAL TRAINING GIVEN BY THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY

III THE MORAL TRAINING FROM METHODS OF INSTRUCTION

IV THE SOCIAL NATURE OF THE COURSE OF STUDY

V THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF MORAL EDUCATION

LEIBNIZ’S NEW ESSAYS CONCERNING THE HUMAN UNDERSTANDING.

PREFACE.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.THE MAN.

CHAPTER II.THE SOURCES OF HIS PHILOSOPHY.

CHAPTER III.THE PROBLEM, AND ITS SOLUTION.

CHAPTER IV.LOCKE AND LEIBNIZ.—INNATE IDEAS.

CHAPTER V.SENSATION AND EXPERIENCE.

CHAPTER VI.THE IMPULSES AND THE WILL.

CHAPTER VII.MATTER AND ITS RELATION TO SPIRIT.

CHAPTER VIII.MATERIAL PHENOMENA AND THEIR REALITY.

CHAPTER IX.SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTIONS.

CHAPTER X.THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF KNOWLEDGE.

CHAPTER XI.THE THEOLOGY OF LEIBNIZ.

CHAPTER XII.CRITICISM AND CONCLUSION.

THE CHILD AND THE CURRICULUM

HUMAN NATURE AND CONDUCT An Introduction to Social Psychology

[pg 001]INTRODUCTION

[pg 014]PART ONETHE PLACE OF HABIT IN CONDUCT

I

[pg 024]II

[pg 043]III

[pg 058]IV

[pg 075]V

[pg 084]VI

[pg 089]PART TWOTHE PLACE OF IMPULSE IN CONDUCT

I

[pg 095]II

[pg 106]III

[pg 125]IV

[pg 131]V

[pg 149]VI

[pg 169]VII

[pg 172]PART THREETHE PLACE OF INTELLIGENCE IN CONDUCT

I

[pg 181]II

[pg 189]III

[pg 199]IV

[pg 210]V

[pg 223]VI

[pg 238]VII

[pg 248]VIII

[pg 265]IX

[pg 278]PART FOURCONCLUSION

I

[pg 295]II

[pg 303]III

[pg 314]IV

ETHICS

BY JOHN DEWEY

AND JAMES H. TUFTS

PREFACE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ETHICS

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

§ 1. DEFINITION AND METHOD

§ 2. CRITERION OF THE MORAL

§ 3. DIVISIONS OF THE TREATMENT

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

PART I THE BEGINNINGS AND GROWTH OF MORALITY

GENERAL LITERATURE FOR PART I

CHAPTER II EARLY GROUP LIFE

§ 1. TYPICAL FACTS OF GROUP LIFE

§ 2. KINSHIP AND HOUSEHOLD GROUPS

§ 3. THE KINSHIP AND FAMILY GROUPS ARE ALSO ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL UNITS

§ 4. THE KINSHIP AND FAMILY GROUPS WERE POLITICAL BODIES

§ 5. THE KINSHIP OR HOUSEHOLD GROUP WAS A RELIGIOUS UNIT

§ 6. GROUPS OR CLASSES ON THE BASIS OF AGE AND SEX

§ 7. MORAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE KINDRED AND OTHER GROUPS

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER III THE RATIONALIZING AND SOCIALIZING AGENCIES IN EARLY SOCIETY

§ 1. THREE LEVELS OF CONDUCT

§ 2. RATIONALIZING AGENCIES

§ 3. SOCIALIZING AGENCIES

§ 4. FAMILY LIFE AS AN IDEALIZING AND SOCIALIZING AGENCY

§ 5. MORAL INTERPRETATION OF THIS FIRST LEVEL

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER IV GROUP MORALITY—CUSTOMS OR MORES

§ 1. MEANING, AUTHORITY, AND ORIGIN OF CUSTOMS

§ 2. MEANS OF ENFORCING CUSTOMS

§ 3. CONDITIONS WHICH BRING OUT THE IMPORTANCE OF GROUP STANDARDS AND RENDER GROUP CONTROL CONSCIOUS

§ 4. VALUES AND DEFECTS OF CUSTOMARY MORALITY

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER V FROM CUSTOM TO CONSCIENCE; FROM GROUP MORALITY TO PERSONAL MORALITY

§ 1. CONTRAST AND COLLISION

§ 2. SOCIOLOGICAL AGENCIES IN THE TRANSITION

§ 3. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL AGENCIES

§ 4. POSITIVE RECONSTRUCTION

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER VI THE HEBREW MORAL DEVELOPMENT

§ 1. GENERAL CHARACTER AND DETERMINING PRINCIPLES

§ 2. RELIGIOUS AGENCIES

§ 3. THE MORAL CONCEPTIONS ATTAINED

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER VII THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREEKS

§ 1. THE FUNDAMENTAL NOTES

§ 2. INTELLECTUAL FORCES OF INDIVIDUALISM

§ 3. COMMERCIAL AND POLITICAL INDIVIDUALISM

§ 4. INDIVIDUALISM AND ETHICAL THEORY

§ 5. THE DEEPER VIEW OF NATURE AND THE GOOD; OF THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE SOCIAL ORDER

§ 6. THE CONCEPTION OF THE IDEAL

§ 7. THE CONCEPTION OF THE SELF; OF CHARACTER AND RESPONSIBILITY

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER VIII THE MODERN PERIOD

§ 1. THE MEDIÆVAL IDEALS

§ 2. MAIN LINES OF MODERN DEVELOPMENT

§ 3. THE OLD AND NEW IN THE BEGINNINGS OF INDIVIDUALISM

§ 4. INDIVIDUALISM IN THE PROGRESS OF LIBERTY AND DEMOCRACY

§ 5. INDIVIDUALISM AS AFFECTED BY THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND ART

§ 6. THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER IX A GENERAL COMPARISON OF CUSTOMARY AND REFLECTIVE MORALITY

§ 1. ELEMENTS OF AGREEMENT AND CONTINUITY

§ 2. ELEMENTS OF CONTRAST

§ 3. OPPOSITION BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIAL AIMS AND STANDARDS

§ 4. EFFECTS UPON THE INDIVIDUAL CHARACTER

§ 5. MORAL DIFFERENTIATION AND THE SOCIAL ORDER

FOOTNOTES:

PART II THEORY OF THE MORAL LIFE

GENERAL LITERATURE FOR PART II

CHAPTER X THE MORAL SITUATION

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XI PROBLEMS OF MORAL THEORY

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XII TYPES OF MORAL THEORY

§ 1. TYPICAL DIVISIONS OF THEORIES

§ 2. DIVISION OF VOLUNTARY ACTIVITY INTO INNER AND OUTER

§ 3. GENERAL INTERPRETATION OF THESE THEORIES

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XIII CONDUCT AND CHARACTER

§ 1. THE GOOD WILL OF KANT

§ 2. THE "INTENTION" OF THE UTILITARIANS

§ 3. CONDUCT AND CHARACTER

§ 4. MORALITY OF ACTS AND OF AGENTS

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XIV HAPPINESS AND CONDUCT: THE GOOD AND DESIRE

§ 1. THE OBJECT OF DESIRE

§ 2. THE CONCEPTION OF HAPPINESS AS A STANDARD

§ 3. THE CONSTITUTION OF HAPPINESS

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XV HAPPINESS AND SOCIAL ENDS[139]

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XVI THE PLACE OF REASON IN THE MORAL LIFE; MORAL KNOWLEDGE

§ 1. PROBLEM OF REASON AND DESIRE

§ 2. KANT'S THEORY OF PRACTICAL REASON

§ 3. MORAL SENSE INTUITIONALISM

§ 4. THE PLACE OF GENERAL RULES

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XVII THE PLACE OF DUTY IN THE MORAL LIFE: SUBJECTION TO AUTHORITY

§ 1. THE SUBJECTION OF DESIRE TO LAW

§ 2. KANTIAN THEORY

§ 3. THE UTILITARIAN THEORY OF DUTY

§ 3. FINAL STATEMENT

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XVIII THE PLACE OF THE SELF IN THE MORAL LIFE

§ 1. THE DOCTRINE OF SELF-DENIAL

§ 2. SELF-ASSERTION

§ 3. SELF-LOVE AND BENEVOLENCE; OR, EGOISM AND ALTRUISM

§ 4. THE GOOD AS SELF-REALIZATION

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XIX THE VIRTUES

INTRODUCTORY

§ 1. TEMPERANCE

§ 2. COURAGE[191] OR PERSISTENT VIGOR

§ 3. JUSTICE

§ 4. WISDOM OR CONSCIENTIOUSNESS

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

PART III THE WORLD OF ACTION

GENERAL LITERATURE FOR PART III

CHAPTER XX SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND THE INDIVIDUAL

§ 1. GROWTH OF INDIVIDUALITY THROUGH SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS

§ 2. RESPONSIBILITY AND FREEDOM

§ 3. RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XXI CIVIL SOCIETY AND THE POLITICAL STATE

§ 1. CIVIL RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS

§ 2. DEVELOPMENT OF CIVIL RIGHTS

§ 3. POLITICAL RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS

§ 4. THE MORAL CRITERION OF POLITICAL ACTIVITY

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XXII THE ETHICS OF THE ECONOMIC LIFE

§ 1. GENERAL ANALYSIS

§ 2. THE PROBLEMS SET BY THE NEW ECONOMIC ORDER

§ 3. THE AGENCIES FOR CARRYING ON COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY

§ 4. THE METHODS OF PRODUCTION, EXCHANGE, AND VALUATION

§ 5. THE FACTORS WHICH AID ETHICAL RECONSTRUCTION

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XXIII SOME PRINCIPLES IN THE ECONOMIC ORDER

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XXIV UNSETTLED PROBLEMS IN THE ECONOMIC ORDER

§ 1. GENERAL STATEMENT OF THE POSITIONS OF INDIVIDUALISM AND OF PUBLIC AGENCY AND CONTROL

§ 2. INDIVIDUALISM OR FREE CONTRACT ANALYZED: ITS VALUES

§ 3. CRITICISMS UPON INDIVIDUALISM

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XXV UNSETTLED PROBLEMS IN THE ECONOMIC ORDER (Continued)

§ 4. THE THEORY OF PUBLIC AGENCY AND CONTROL

§ 5. SOCIETY AS AGENCY OF PRODUCTION

§ 6. THEORIES OF JUST DISTRIBUTION

§ 7. OWNERSHIP AND USE OF PROPERTY

§ 8. PRESENT TENDENCIES

§ 9. THREE SPECIAL PROBLEMS

APPENDIX TO CHAPTER XXV

PROFESSOR SEAGER'S PROGRAMME OF SOCIAL LEGISLATION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO WAGE-EARNERS

FOOTNOTES:

CHAPTER XXVI THE FAMILY

§ 1. HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS OF THE MODERN FAMILY

§ 2. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF THE FAMILY

§ 3. GENERAL ELEMENTS OF STRAIN IN FAMILY RELATIONS

§ 4. SPECIAL CONDITIONS WHICH GIVE RISE TO PRESENT PROBLEMS

§ 5. UNSETTLED PROBLEMS: (1) ECONOMIC

§ 6. UNSETTLED PROBLEMS: (2) POLITICAL

LITERATURE

FOOTNOTES:

CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE

ESSAYS IN THE PRAGMATIC ATTITUDE

PREFATORY NOTE

CONTENTS

CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE

THE NEED FOR A RECOVERY OF PHILOSOPHY

JOHN DEWEY

I

II

III

IV

V

REFORMATION OF LOGIC

ADDISON W. MOORE

I

II

III

IV

INTELLIGENCE AND MATHEMATICS

HAROLD CHAPMAN BROWN

I

Beginnings of Arithmetic and Geometry

II

The Progress of Self-conscious Theory

III

Contemporary Thought in Arithmetic and Geometry

IV

Things, Relations, and Quantities

V

The Function of Theory in Science

VI

Mathematical Intelligence

SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND INDIVIDUAL THINKER

GEORGE H. MEAD

CONSCIOUSNESS AND PSYCHOLOGY

BOYD H. BODE

I

II

III

IV

THE PHASES OF THE ECONOMIC INTEREST

HENRY WALDGRAVE STUART

I

II

CONCLUSION

THE MORAL LIFE AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF VALUES AND STANDARDS64

JAMES HAYDEN TUFTS

I

II

III

IV

VALUE AND EXISTENCE IN PHILOSOPHY, ART, AND RELIGION

HORACE M. KALLEN

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

FOOTNOTES:

RECONSTRUCTION IN PHILOSOPHY

PREFATORY NOTE

CONTENTS

RECONSTRUCTION IN PHILOSOPHY

CHAPTER I

CHANGING CONCEPTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

CHAPTER II

SOME HISTORICAL FACTORS IN PHILOSOPHICAL RECONSTRUCTION

CHAPTER III

THE SCIENTIFIC FACTOR IN RECONSTRUCTION OF PHILOSOPHY

CHAPTER IV

CHANGED CONCEPTIONS OF EXPERIENCE AND REASON

CHAPTER V

CHANGED CONCEPTIONS OF THE IDEAL AND THE REAL

CHAPTER VI

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LOGICAL RECONSTRUCTION

CHAPTER VII

RECONSTRUCTION IN MORAL CONCEPTIONS

CHAPTER VIII

RECONSTRUCTION AS AFFECTING SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY

ESSAYS IN EXPERIMENTAL LOGIC

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I INTRODUCTION

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

II THE RELATIONSHIP OF THOUGHT AND ITS SUBJECT-MATTER

III THE ANTECEDENTS AND STIMULI OF THINKING

IV DATA AND MEANINGS

V THE OBJECTS OF THOUGHT

VI SOME STAGES OF LOGICAL THOUGHT

VII THE LOGICAL CHARACTER OF IDEAS

VIII THE CONTROL OF IDEAS BY FACTS

I

II

III

IV

IX NAÏVE REALISM VS. PRESENTATIVE REALISM[58]

I

II

III

IV

X EPISTEMOLOGICAL REALISM: THE ALLEGED UBIQUITY OF THE KNOWLEDGE RELATION

I

II

III

XI THE EXISTENCE OF THE WORLD AS A LOGICAL PROBLEM

I

II

XII WHAT PRAGMATISM MEANS BY PRACTICAL

I

II

III

XIII AN ADDED NOTE AS TO THE "PRACTICAL"

XIV THE LOGIC OF JUDGMENTS OF PRACTICE

THEIR NATURE

JUDGMENTS OF VALUE

SENSE PERCEPTION AS KNOWLEDGE

SCIENCE AS A PRACTICAL ART

THEORY AND PRACTICE

INDEX

FOOTNOTES:

Psychology and Social Practice

I.

II.

LETTERS FROM CHINA AND JAPAN

CHINA, JAPANAND THE U. S. A.

Contents

I On Two Sides of the Eastern Seas

II Shantung, As Seen From Within

1.

2.

III Hinterlands in China

IV A Political Upheaval in China

V Divided China

1.

2.

VI Federalism in China

VII A Parting of the Ways for America

1

2

Footnotes

GERMAN PHILOSOPHY AND POLITICS

PREFACE

CONTENTS

IGERMAN PHILOSOPHY: THE TWO WORLDS

IIGERMAN MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

IIITHE GERMANIC PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY

DEMOCRACY AND EDUCATION

by John Dewey

Transcriber's Note:

I have tried to make this the most accurate text possible but I am sure that there are still mistakes.

I would like to dedicate this etext to my mother who was a elementary school teacher for more years than I can remember. Thanks.

David Reed

Chapter One: Education as a Necessity of Life

1. Renewal of Life by Transmission. The most notable distinction between living and inanimate things is that the former maintain themselves by renewal. A stone when struck resists. If its resistance is greater than the force of the blow struck, it remains outwardly unchanged. Otherwise, it is shattered into smaller bits. Never does the stone attempt to react in such a way that it may maintain itself against the blow, much less so as to render the blow a contributing factor to its own continued action. While the living thing may easily be crushed by superior force, it none the less tries to turn the energies which act upon it into means of its own further existence. If it cannot do so, it does not just split into smaller pieces (at least in the higher forms of life), but loses its identity as a living thing.

As long as it endures, it struggles to use surrounding energies in its own behalf. It uses light, air, moisture, and the material of soil. To say that it uses them is to say that it turns them into means of its own conservation. As long as it is growing, the energy it expends in thus turning the environment to account is more than compensated for by the return it gets: it grows. Understanding the word "control" in this sense, it may be said that a living being is one that subjugates and controls for its own continued activity the energies that would otherwise use it up. Life is a self-renewing process through action upon the environment.