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- Herausgeber: Carcanet Fiction
- Kategorie: Gesellschafts- und Liebesromane
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011
Some Do Not..., the first volume of Parade's End, introduces the central characters: Christopher Tietjens, a brilliant mathematician; his dazzling, unfaithful wife Sylvia; and the young Suffragette Valentine Wannop. It starts with the cataclysmic weekend that throws Tietjens and Valentine together. It ends in 1917 as the two are on the verge of becoming lovers, before Tietjens prepares to return to the Front and probable death. Some Do Not... is an unforgettable exploration of the tensions of a society facing catastrophe, as the energies of sexuality and power erupt into violence. Some Do Not... includes: the first reliable text, based on the manuscript and first editions; a major critical introduction by Max Saunders, Ford's acclaimed biographer; an account of the novel's composition and reception; a reconstruction of Ford's dramatic original ending, published complete for the first time; annotations explaining historical references, military terms, literary and topical allusions; a full textual apparatus including transcriptions of significant deletions and revisions; a bibliography of further reading.
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FORD MADOX FORD
Parade’s EndVOLUME I
Some Do Not …A Novel
Edited by Max Saunders
CONTENTS
Title Page
Acknowledgements
List of Illustrations
List of Short Titles
Introduction
A Note on this Edition of Parade’s End
A Note on the Text of Some Do Not …
SOME DO NOT …: A NOVEL
Textual Notes
Appendix: Reconstruction of the Original Ending
Select Bibliography
About the Author
Also by Ford Madox Ford from Carcanet Press
Copyright
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This edition was conceived from the outset as a collaborative project, and my greatest debt is to my fellow-editors and exemplary collaborators, Joseph Wiesenfarth, Sara Haslam, and Paul Skinner. Working with them has made the editorial task a constant pleasure and fascination, and I’m extremely grateful for their friendship, their help and wisdom in formulating the principles and conventions for the edition, and for their patience and tirelessness throughout our reading of each others’ work, checking it, and contributing extra material towards it. For the preparation of Some Do Not …, I would particularly like to thank Paul Skinner for his generosity in sharing his astonishing expertise not only on the entire range of Ford’s work but on its literary and historical context. He provided much of the material for the footnotes.
Ashley Chantler also deserves our special thanks for his editorial advice, especially on the comparability of work across all four volumes. I am also very grateful to other friends who helped by providing information and discussing editorial issues, including Jason Andrew, Anna Aslanyan, John Attridge, Pete Clasen, Valentina Golysheva, Warwick Gould, Kate Kennedy, Gavin Selerie, Martin Stannard, Ann-Marie Vinde and Angus Wrenn.
I am especially grateful to Don Skemer and the staff of Princeton University Library for providing a microfilm copy of the manuscript of Some Do Not … and for granting permission to publish those parts of it not published previously in the book versions. I’d particularly like to thank Charles E. Greene there for his detailed answers to my questions about the manuscript and the library’s other Ford holdings. Katherine Reagan and the staff at the Carl A. Kroch Library, Cornell University, and Gayle M. Richardson, at the Huntington Library, have also been extremely helpful. I’d like to thank Cornell University, Michael Schmidt, and the estate of Janice Biala for permission to quote from Ford’s and Biala’s letters.
Our editor at Carcanet, Judith Willson, deserves special thanks for all her valuable advice. Finally, I’d like to thank Michael Schmidt, as director of Carcanet Press, for his confidence in the project; and, as Ford’s executor, for giving himself (and us) permission to publish it.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Dust-jacket from the first edition of Some Do Not … (Duckworth, 1924)xii
Leaf from the original manuscript of Some Do Not …lxxvi
LIST OF SHORT TITLES
INTRODUCTION
Biographical
The major books of the First World War – according to a truism of literary history – didn’t appear until a decade after the Armistice. True of the most famous of the memoirs: Edmund Blunden’s Undertones of War (1928), Robert Graves’s Goodbye to All That (1929), or Siegfried Sassoon’s Memoirs of an Infantry Officer (1930). True, too, of the best-known of the autobiographical novels, such as Erich Maria Remarque’s All Quiet on the Western Front (1928–9), Richard Aldington’s Death of a Hero (1929), or Frederic Manning’s The Middle Parts of Fortune (1929; expurgated as Her Privates We in 1930); and also of R. C. Sherriff’s play of 1928, Journey’s End.
Yet the accuracy of this account fails in two fatal respects. First, much of the best-known writing of all coming from the war is its poetry, either written by men such as Wilfred Owen and Isaac Rosenberg, who didn’t survive it, or by men such as Siegfried Sassoon and Ivor Gurney, who did, but who wrote powerfully and hauntingly during and immediately after it. Second, there were important war books appearing earlier: as early as 1922 in the case of C. E. Montague’s Disenchantment, and as early as 1924 for the first volumes of two major novel-sequences about the war: R. H. Mottram’s The Spanish Farm Trilogy (1924–6) and Ford Madox Ford’s tetralogy, Parade’s End (1924–8). These complex, ambitious, and ironic works may not have had the mass appeal of Remarque’s or Sherriff’s impassioned condemnations of modern total war’s brutality and degradation. Or it may be that a mass readership – many members of which had themselves borne witness to the horror – simply wasn’t ready to see war as aesthetic subject-matter. But it may also be that complex novelists take longer to mature than lyric poets, or cynically anti-lyric poets.
Ford Madox Hueffer (as he then was) enlisted in July 1915 and was given a commission in the Welch Regiment.1 His father was the German émigré Francis Hueffer, his mother the English daughter of the painter Ford Madox Brown. Ford went through the whole war with his father’s German name, only changing it in 1919. He was an unlikely Welshman: perhaps someone had associated ‘Madox’ with the Welsh folklore prince Madoc. Ford was an even less likely soldier: forty-one, not particularly fit, with a history of agoraphobic nervous breakdown and ‘dyspepsia’, and an extreme sensitivity to impressions and sensations. In his twenties, when he had lived on the Romney Marsh – where the Wannops and Duchemins live in Part I of Some Do Not … – he had gone for long walks, kept livestock, and grown vegetables. But those were recreations – however necessary to him from time to time – from his only true calling, which was to write. Since the breakdown of his marriage to Elsie Hueffer, he had lived an urban, sedentary London life. He joined up in the wave of patriotic recruitment, one of the two-and-a-half million men who volunteered for service before conscription had to be introduced when the numbers of volunteers fell away in 1916. But Ford had additional motives. His private life became increasingly troubled after he began an affair with the socialite and fashionably shocking novelist Violet Hunt from 1908–9. Elsie refused to divorce him (paradoxically, since he was the Catholic but wanted to divorce her). Ford went to live in Germany, having been led to believe he could get German citizenship and then a German divorce. He and Hunt returned to England claiming to be married, which seemed to satisfy her need for respectability. While it’s possible they went through a ceremony of sorts on the continent, it would probably have been deemed bigamous under British law. When in 1912, a newspaper, the Throne, referred to Violet as Mrs Hueffer, Elsie sued it and won. Violet later claimed that she and Ford hadn’t been able to document their wedding for fear of his being jailed. But most people – including most of their friends – thought the marriage a foolish fiction. Ford, like Christopher Tietjens, the male protagonist of Parade’s End, said nothing to defend himself. Violet’s less bohemian friends ostracised them. The scandal put an intolerable strain on their relationship. Ford felt bound to stand by her because of his part in their disgrace. But life with her had become unbearable to him. The army, and even the possibility of death, offered an escape.
Ford had published his greatest pre-war novel, The Good Soldier, in 1915, only four months before he took his commission. Looking back at that book in 1927, he described himself as having felt like a great Auk, who had laid his one egg ‘and might as well die’; a feeling intensified by his sense of the generation of young writers – les Jeunes – whose work he had encouraged and published, but who in return regarded him as out of date. ‘Those were the passionate days of the literary Cubists, Vorticists, Imagistes’, he said, and recalled the Vorticist Wyndham Lewis denouncing him as ‘Finished! Exploded! Done for! Blasted in fact!’ and telling him: ‘Your generation has gone. What is the sense of you and Conrad and Impressionism?’2
Ford need not have volunteered. He was old for active service and could without shame have continued his writing for ‘Wellington House’, the secret propaganda department run by his and Violet’s friend, the Liberal Cabinet minister Charles Masterman, for whom Ford had already written two books of propaganda, When Blood is Their Argument and Between St. Dennis and St. George (both 1915), as well as numerous articles. But he appeared to want to go, and not to expect to return. When he was posted to France in the middle of July 1916, two weeks into the bloodiest battle in British military history, the Somme, it must have seemed very unlikely that he would return. He very nearly did not. At the base camp in Rouen, Ford and his fellow members of the Welch Regiment were attached to the 9th Battalion, and left Rouen on 18 July to join their units. Though he was anxious to experience the front line, his Commanding Officer thought he was too old, and Ford was stationed with the battalion transport near Bécourt Wood, just behind the Front near Albert, close to where the 9th Welch had seen heavy losses during the grisly battle of Mametz Wood and the Allied attempts to advance up ‘Sausage Valley’ to La Boisselle. On 28 or 29 July he was ‘blown into the air’ by a high-explosive shell and landed on his face, concussed, with a damaged mouth and loosened teeth. The concussion erased whole patches of his knowledge. He even forgot his own name for thirty-six hours. He was shuttled between Field Ambulances and Casualty Clearing Stations, none of which had the equipment to treat him.
About three weeks later Ford left the Casualty Clearing Station at Corbie to rejoin the 9th Battalion of the Welch Regiment, which was now stationed in the Ypres Salient near Kemmel Hill. His experiences on the Western Front are discussed in more detail in the introductions and notes to the later novels, in which Tietjens’ war experiences are represented directly. But Ford’s time in the Salient needs mentioning here, for two reasons: because it provided the basis for what happens to Tietjens between Parts I and II of Some Do Not …, which casts its shadow over the whole volume, though it is barely described; and because it was when Ford first started imagining writing about the war. He later said that it was while returning to the Front that he realised he was the only novelist of his age to be in the fighting. This made it all the more necessary that he should bear witness, and he recalled: ‘I began to take a literary view of the war from that time.’3 He also actually started to write about it while there, first in three extraordinary letters he sent to Conrad in the first week of September 1916, rendering his impressions of the war – including some striking ‘notes upon sound’. ‘I wrote these rather hurried notes yesterday because we were being shelled to hell & I did not expect to get thro’ the night’, he explained. ‘I wonder if it is just vanity that in these cataclysmic moments makes one desire to record.’4 Ford hoped Conrad might be able to use these impressions because he did not expect to live to be able to do so.
Margaret Atwood has written on how ‘all writing of the narrative kind, and perhaps all writing, is motivated, deep down, by a fear of and a fascination with mortality – by a desire to make the risky trip to the Underworld, and to bring something or someone back from the dead.’5 War writing above all is motivated by that fear and fascination. For many participants, trench war seemed uncannily like a trip to the underworld – as imagined, for example, by Wilfred Owen in his poem ‘Strange Meeting’, in which the trenchscape leads into a nightmare vision of the dead speaking in an underworld no-man’s land. One of Ford’s first literary efforts after the war was to translate Euripides’ Alcestis, in which the heroine volunteers to die in her husband’s place, and is then in turn rescued from death by the demigod Hercules.6 Ford said that in working on it he had ‘recovered some shadow of power over words. But not much.’7 What struck him in the Ypres Salient was how little power he seemed to have over words, or how little power words had, to record the cataclysm. That was the motive for the piece he wrote dated 15 September 1916, which was signed ‘Miles Ignotus’ (‘the unknown soldier’) and headed ‘A Day of Battle’. Extended prose written at the Front is relatively rare compared to letters or even poems. Trench conditions scarcely conduced to novel-writing. This is an important document not only for what it tells of the experience, but for what it foretells about Parade’s End. After the war he wrote of his ‘first sight of the German lines from a down behind Albert in 1916’ – it was almost certainly while he was stationed near Bécourt in July, before his concussion – that it was ‘about the most unforgettable of my own experiences in the flesh ….’8 The literary impressionism Ford had developed with Conrad was always intensely visual. He often echoed Conrad’s dictum that the writer’s task is ‘before all, to make you see’.9 But ‘A Day of Battle’ begins by asking why it is that he cannot write about the war:
With the pen, I used to be able to ‘visualize things’ – as it used to be called […] Now I could not make you see Messines, Wijtschate, St Eloi; or La Boiselle, the Bois de Bécourt or de Mametz – although I have sat looking at them for hours, for days, for weeks on end. Today, when I look at a mere coarse map of the Line, simply to read ‘Ploegsteert’ or ‘Armentières’ seems to bring up extraordinarily coloured and exact pictures behind my eyeballs – little pictures having all the brilliant minuteness that medieval illuminations had – of towers, and roofs, and belts of trees and sunlight; or, for the matter of these, of men, burst into mere showers of blood and dissolving into muddy ooze; or of aeroplanes and shells against the translucent blue. – But, as for putting them – into words! No: the mind stops dead, and something in the brain stops and shuts down […]10
It is a deeply paradoxical piece, vividly recreating the predicament of someone who feels he can no longer create vivid representations: ‘As far as I am concerned an invisible barrier in my brain seems to lie between the profession of Arms and the mind that put things into words.’11 This is partly because of the predominant feeling of anxiety:
I used to think that being out in France would be like being in a magic ring that would cut me off from all private troubles: but nothing is further from the truth. I have gone down to the front line at night, worried, worried, worried beyond belief about happenings at home in a Blighty that I did not much expect to see again – so worried that all sense of personal danger disappeared and I forgot to duck when shells went close overhead.12
Doubtless Ford did worry about ‘happenings at home’ while he was in the army. The separation from friends and family, and the enforced inactivity of much of army life, must have opened up new spaces for anxiety. In No Enemy he wrote of ‘that eternal “waiting to report” that takes up 112/113ths of one’s time during war’.13 Yet this account of Home Front worries pursuing the soldier even to the battlefield (as Sylvia pursues Tietjens to France in No More Parades) could equally be read the other way around: as fear about death and physical harm being displaced somewhere as far away as possible. Either way, it became an integral part of his aim for the series to convey the sensation of this anxiety: ‘it seemed to me that, if I could present, not merely fear, not merely horror, not merely death, not merely even self-sacrifice … but just worry; that might strike a note of which the world would not so readily tire’.14
Shell-shock
Anxiety is one of Ford’s major themes, and in Parade’s End it takes different forms in each novel. Some Do Not … details Tietjens’ anxieties over his tortured marriage to Sylvia, then his love for Valentine, and then his amnesia; and it details Valentine’s worry over their relationship, and then over whether he will survive the war. But the forms of anxiety in Parade’sEnd are all suffused with the anxiety of ‘shell-shock’ and Ford’s subsequent amnesia. Parade’s End is not the first novel of shell-shock (now clinically termed ‘post-traumatic stress disorder’). Rebecca West’s The Return of the Soldier had appeared in 1918. But it is an early rendering of trauma produced by the First World War, written at a time when trauma was still only beginning to be understood. As Tietjens thinks later in the series: ‘There was no knowing what shell shock was or what it did to you.’15Some Do Not … preceded by a year Woolf’s Mrs Dalloway, with its suicidal visionary veteran Septimus Warren Smith. The greatest war literature is concerned with what war does not just to bodies, but also to minds. Some Do Not … is the first and greatest novel of shell-shock written by a combatant, who had not only witnessed some of the appalling facts of trench warfare, but who had also had the experience of blast-concussion, and the resulting amnesia and terror.
Marwood
To recover more of his power over words, Ford needed to revisit the shades of his own war anxieties in Parade’s End. But he found an oblique method for doing it, and for solving the problem of visualisation. He characteristically gave several different accounts of the gestation of the sequence. First, he described a moment while still at the Front:
it must have been in September, 1916, when I was in a region called the Salient, and I remember the very spot where the idea came to me – I said to myself: How would all this look in the eyes of X … – already dead, along with all English Tories?16
‘X’ was Arthur Marwood, Ford’s much-admired close friend, and in many ways the prototype for Christopher Tietjens. Tietjens has Marwood’s family history. The Marwoods’ family seat was Busby Hall, which Ford reinvented as Groby Hall in Parade’s End. Busby is near Stokesley in Yorkshire, not far from Redcar, where Ford had been stationed in the summer of 1917 after being invalided home. Tietjens has Marwood’s mathematical prowess and education, his mannerisms, his thought-style. It was, said Ford, ‘as if I “set” my mind by his’:
If I had personal problems I would go and talk to him about anything else. Then the clarity of the working of his mind had an effect on mine that made me see, if not what was best to do then, what would be most true to myself.17
He imagined a series of Marwoodian fictional characters before and after the war. In Parade’s End, the reimagining of Marwood enabled him to see the war from another point of view – from a lofty, Tory perspective – to see the Western Front under another’s eyes. ‘A Day of Battle’ is the first half of a two-part piece called ‘War and the Mind’. In the person of Tietjens, Ford sends Marwood’s mind to the war. In actuality Marwood, who was five years older than Ford, had been ill with tuberculosis and had died in May 1916.18
In 1931, in his reminiscences of the pre-war years, Return to Yesterday, Ford identified Tietjens explicitly with Marwood. But, surprisingly, considering his memory of ‘the very spot where the idea came’ to him, the scene is now set in Menton, during Ford’s convalescence on the Riviera in the spring of 1917. He tells how he had been experimenting with Marwood’s ‘system’ for gambling at Monte Carlo:
It was whilst I was thus passing my time that it occurred to me to wonder what Marwood would have thought about the War and the way it was conducted. In the attempt to realise that problem for myself I wrote several novels with a projection of him as a central character. Of course they were no sort of biography of Marwood. He died several years before the War, though, as I have said, that is a fact that I never realise.19
The back-dating of Marwood’s death is surprising, though such inconsistencies are characteristic of Ford’s impressionism. Perhaps he was thinking of the death of their friendship (when Marwood got drawn into Ford’s estrangement from Elsie); or perhaps it is an impressionistic way of saying that Ford had heard of Marwood’s death before going to the war. Similarly, there is doubtless some truth in both accounts of where and when Ford had the idea of using Marwood’s mind to focalise a war novel: as he said, he already had the habit of wondering what Marwood would think about things.
It is in It Was the Nightingale (1934), his reminiscences about his post-war life, that Ford says most about the genesis and the writing of Parade’s End. Here, too, Marwood is involved, but this time for a story he tells about someone else. Ford recalls a conversation in a railway carriage in 1908 or 1909:
I said to Marwood:
‘What really became of Waring?’
He said:
‘The poor devil, he picked up a bitch on a train between Calais and Paris. She persuaded him that he had got her with child…. He felt he had to marry her…. Then he found out that the child might be another man’s, just as well as his…. There was no real knowing…. It was the hardest luck I ever heard of…. She was as unfaithful to him as a street-walker….’
I said:
‘Couldn’t he divorce?’
– But he couldn’t divorce. He held that a decent man could never divorce a woman. The woman, on the other hand, would not divorce him because she was a Roman Catholic.20
This provides the story-line of Tietjens’ marriage to Sylvia. (It also suggests how in both The Good Soldier and Parade’s End Ford came to reverse the religious contrast between himself as the Catholic and Elsie Hueffer or Violet Hunt as nominal Protestants.) But it includes nothing yet of the complications ensuing from Tietjens’ adulterous love for Valentine Wannop. In It Was the Nightingale this second stage comes when Ford was staying in Harold Monro’s villa at St Jean Cap Ferrat during the winter of 1922–3, having found the cold and mud of Sussex winters unbearable. Nearby lived ‘a poor fellow who had had almost Waring’s fate’. He does not name the man, but one reason why his story must have stuck in Ford’s mind is its similarities to the stories of Dowell and Ashburnham in The Good Soldier:
He was a wealthy American who had married a wrong ’un. She had been unfaithful to him before and after marriage. He had supported these wrongs because of his passion for the woman. At last she had eloped with a ship steward and had gone sailing around the world. The husband being an American of good tradition considered himself precluded from himself taking proceedings for divorce, but he would gladly have let the woman divorce him and would have provided liberally for her. She, however, was sailing around the world and he had no means of communicating with her. Almost simultaneously, after a year or so, he had conceived an overwhelming passion for another woman and the wife had returned…. What passed between them one had no means of knowing. Presumably she had announced her intention of settling down again with him and had flatly refused to divorce him. So he committed suicide….
The dim sight of the roof of his villa below me over the bay gave me then another stage of my intrigue […] It suddenly occurred to me to wonder what Marwood himself would have thought of the story – and then what he would have thought of the war […] I imagined his mind going all over the misty and torrential happenings of the Western Front […] I seemed, even as I walked in that garden, to see him stand in some high place in France during the period of hostilities taking in not only what was visible, but all the causes and all the motive powers of distant places. And I seemed to hear his infinitely scornful comment on those places. It was as if he lived again.21
One way that Ford could continue not to realise Marwood’s death was to realise him as a living character. Recovering Marwood, through a Herculean descent into the Western Front’s underworld of shadows, enabled Ford to recover his own powers of visualisation. Yet to say that is to acknowledge that Tietjens’ experiences in the novels are Ford’s rather than Marwood’s. His marital problems and his war service closely reflect Ford’s own life before and during the war. Ford is also summoning back the shade of his own past self. If he felt before enlisting that he might as well die, when he came back, having come through a near-death experience, he sometimes wrote as if he had died: as when he titled his 1921 volume of reminiscences Thus to Revisit, casting himself as the ghost of Hamlet’s father returning to the pre-war past. ‘In the end’, he said later, ‘if one is a writer, one is a writer, and if one was in that hell, it was a major motive that one should be able to write of it […].’22 By combining Marwood’s mind with his own experiences in the character of Tietjens, Ford had found the way to do that.
In which case, indeed, the stories of Marwood, Waring, and the ‘wealthy American’ might be strategically deployed to draw attention away from the autobiographical dimension of the novels. In particular, the female characters have been seen as drawing closely on Ford’s partners. The haughty and vindictive Sylvia Tietjens, Christopher’s estranged wife, has been identified with Violet Hunt (by her biographers as well as by Ford’s). Valentine Wannop owes much to the woman for whom Ford left Hunt, the young Australian painter Stella Bowen – though she also draws upon Stella’s friend Margaret Postgate, who had Valentine’s classical education. And the hypocritical Edith Ethel Duchemin has been seen as an unflattering portrait of Ford’s estranged wife Elsie. After the Throne scandal, it was in Ford’s interest for these parallels not to figure in the reviews of the books. His question ‘What really became of Waring?’ alludes to Browning’s poem, which begins: ‘What’s become of Waring / Since he gave us all the slip.’ Wrapping the question up in an allusion suggests that the name is a pseudonym, or that the story has already begun to turn into a fiction.
As the multiplicity of these stories indicates, the gestation of Parade’s End was a slow, oblique process. Ford said of his earlier masterpiece, The Good Soldier, that ‘though I wrote it with comparative rapidity, I had it hatching within myself for fully another decade’.23 This was written in 1927, by which time he had completed the first three novels of Parade’s End. And once again, a long process of conception and development had produced his best work. This time, it was seven years since he first had the idea while in the Salient in 1916 before he finished Some Do Not … in 1923, and more than a decade before he had completed all four novels in 1928. In the meantime, there had been several false starts. He had begun writing a more autobiographical novel, ‘True Love & a GCM.’ (‘General Court Martial’) in 1918–19, but left it unfinished. Also in 1919 he wrote most of the fictionalised book of reminiscences about the war that was published a decade later as No Enemy. He did complete a novel about the literary life and the war, but didn’t publish it.24 He wrote criticism, reminiscences, and some of his best poetry. But it was 1923 before he published his first post-war novel: The Marsden Case. This too is oblique about the war, though eloquent about why it needs to be:
This is not a war novel. Heaven knows I, who saw something of that struggle, would willingly wipe out of my mind every sight that I saw, every sound that I heard, every memory in my brain. But it is impossible, though there are non-participants who demand it, to write the lives of people to-day aged thirty or so, and leave out all mention of the fact that whilst those young people were aged, say, twenty-two to twenty-eight, there existed – Armageddon. For the matter of that, it would be wicked to attempt it, since the eyes, the ears, the brain and the fibres of every soul to-day adult have been profoundly seared by those dreadful wickednesses of embattled humanity.25
That is very much the project of Parade’s End too: to show how the war affected the generations of Ford and les Jeunes. TheMarsden Case provided a structural model for Some Do Not … as well, since both are diptych forms, with a pre-war first half and a second after the main characters have been to the war. In both, the war itself is a disturbing absence between the two halves, though constantly suggested everywhere – as, in Some Do Not …, in the subtly connected outbreaks of violence in the regulated Edwardian civilisation of Part I.
Ford remembered another episode – this time an encounter in Paris – that heightened the urgency of writing about the war. In front of Notre Dame he met a man called Evans from his regiment. They went into the cathedral ‘and looked at the bright little tablet that commemorates the death of over a million men’.26 Inevitably, they began to reminisce about the war. They had met when Ford was on his way to rejoin his battalion from Corbie after his shell-blast and terrifying amnesia. Evans was in the same wagon, returning from England where he had been recovering from a wound in the thigh. ‘The wagon had jolted more abominably than ever’, recalled Ford, ‘and I could, in Notre Dame, remember that I had felt beside my right thigh for the brake. The beginnings of panic came over me. I had forgotten whether I found the brake!’ Panic because this small amnesia made him worry that it might herald a reprise of the larger, battle-induced one: ‘The memory that had chosen to return after Corbie must be forsaking me again.’ As often with him, such fear, and the ensuing urge to write novels, was associated with thoughts of death: ‘I thought Evans had been killed the day after we had got back to the line – but he obviously hadn’t.’ Ostensibly Ford was anxious that he would not be able to write a convincing war novel if his grasp of factual detail was weakening. The significance of such detail was more personal, however (he could, after all, have rediscovered factual details with some research). If he could not recall the matter of his past, it was as if he were becoming what he referred to as ‘the stuff to fill graveyards’; might himself be mistaken for dead.27
There were specifically literary motives for Ford’s decision to start writing about the war in the early 1920s, in addition to these more personal and psychological ones. His close involvement with fellow-Modernists, and especially with Ezra Pound, meant that he was well aware of the epoch-making work then being written. He would have known Pound’s poem-sequences Hugh Selwyn Mauberley and Homage to Sextus Propertius, as well as the early stages of his epic sequence The Cantos. In January 1922 Pound sent Ford a draft of what was then Canto VIII, but would later be revised and incorporated into Canto II, asking Ford in his ‘infinite patience’ if he could ‘go through the enclosed with a red, blood-red, green, blue, or other pencil and scratch what is too awful’.28 Ford had already begun his magnificent experimental verse-satire Mister Bosphorus and the Muses when ‘The Waste Land’ was published in October 1922. Pound’s vivid evocation of Mediterranean gods may have influenced Bosphorus’s longing for the Southern muse; Ford’s use of music-hall and cinema in the poem may signal a debt to Eliot, though Ford had written about both media before he knew of Eliot.29 Then in July 1922 Ford wrote one of the important early reviews of Joyce’s Ulysses, which had appeared in book form that February.30 It was immediately apparent to him that, for all its baffling complexity, Ulysses had altered the literary landscape:
One can’t arrive at one’s valuation of a volume so loaded as Ulysses after a week of reading and two or three weeks of thought about it. Next year, or in twenty years, one may. For it is as if a new continent with new traditions had appeared, and demanded to be run through in a month. Ulysses contains the undiscovered mind of man; it is human consciousness analyzed as it has never before been analyzed. Certain books change the world. This, success or failure, Ulysses does: for no novelist with serious aims can henceforth set out upon a task of writing before he has at least formed his own private estimate as to the rightness or wrongness of the methods of the author of Ulysses. If it does not make an epoch – and it well may! – it will at least mark the ending of a period.31
The ‘ending of a period’ is, of course, also the subject of Parade’s End – Period’s End, perhaps… When Ford and Stella Bowen arrived in Paris in December 1922 they found themselves witness to another epochal ending: the mourning and funeral of Marcel Proust. Ford said that ‘even at that date I still dreaded the weakness in myself that I knew I should find if I made my prolonged effort’. But with the example of A la recherche du temps perdu added to those of Pound, Joyce, and Eliot, he now felt it was time he began his own prolonged effort. ‘I think I am incapable of any thoughts of rivalry’, he wrote. But he wanted to see some literary work done: ‘something on an immense scale’: ‘I wanted the Novelist in fact to appear in his really proud position as historian of his own time. Proust being dead I could see no one who was doing that.’ Parade’s End thus originated in multiple acts of elegy: for Marwood; for the war-dead, or presumed-dead; for Ford’s pre-war Hueffer-self; for Proust; and for what he called ‘the world before the war’.32 Though the war is at its heart, its scope is much more ambitious: to trace the changes to individuals, society, and culture wrought by the war; and to do that, Ford had to start (as the stories of Marwood and ‘Waring’ indicate) with pre-war Edwardian society, and finish with post-war regeneration and reconstruction.
Plot Summary
Some Do Not … begins with the two young friends, Christopher Tietjens and Vincent Macmaster, on the train to Rye for a golfing weekend in the country. The year, probably 1912, is only indicated later.33 They both work in London as government statisticians, though Macmaster aspires to be a critic and has just written a short book on Dante Gabriel Rossetti. He plans to call on a parson who knew Rossetti and who lives near Rye. The first of the novel’s two parts covers the ensuing weekend, which changes both their lives. Tietjens is preoccupied with his disastrous marriage. The second chapter switches to his elegant socialite wife, Sylvia, who is staying with her mother at Lobscheid, a quiet German resort, with their priest, Father Consett. Sylvia had left Tietjens for a lover, Major Perowne, but became bored with him. She’s bored in Lobscheid too, but needs the alibi of being there to look after her mother to account for her absence when she returns to London. Consett probes the state of her marriage, and senses that her anger towards Tietjens is far from indifference. Back in England, Macmaster has called on the Rev. Duchemin, but was received by his wife and is instantly infatuated by her Pre-Raphaelite ambience and elegance. He rejoins Tietjens for a round of golf with General Campion and his brother-in-law. At the clubhouse they meet a Liberal Cabinet minister. While they are playing, the game is interrupted by two Suffragettes haranguing the minister. Some of the men start chasing them, and the chase threatens to become violent, but Tietjens manages to trip up a policeman as if by accident and the women escape. The next morning Macmaster takes Tietjens back to the Duchemins, where he has been invited for one of their celebrated breakfasts. Mrs Duchemin is apprehensive about her husband, who is prone to fits of lunacy. He becomes paranoid that the two guests are doctors coming to take him to an asylum, and destroys the decorum of the occasion, first ranting about sex in Latin, then starting to describe his wedding night. Macmaster saves the day by telling Duchemin’s minder how to neutralise him, and Mrs Duchemin is soon holding his hand and admiring his tact. One of the other guests is Valentine Wannop, who lives nearby with her mother, a novelist. Valentine turns out to be one of the Suffragette protesters. Mrs Wannop is also there, and is delighted to meet Tietjens, since his father had helped her when she became widowed. She is one of the few writers he admires. She insists that Tietjens come back with them for lunch. He and Valentine walk back through the countryside. When they’re overtaken by Mrs Wannop on her dog-cart, he notices that the horse’s strap is about to break, and potentially saves her life by fixing it. The Wannops are sheltering the other Suffragette, Gertie, and worry that the police might be looking for them. So Tietjens agrees to drive with Valentine in the cart to hide Gertie with some of the Wannops’ relations. They leave at ten on Midsummer night, so as not to be seen, and drive all night. On the way back, Tietjens and Valentine are alone, conversing, arguing, and falling in love, until, in the dawn mist, General Campion crashes his car into them and injures the horse.
Part I ends on that scene of carnage. Part II begins several years later, in the middle of the war, probably in 1917. Tietjens is back in London, lunching with Sylvia. He has been fighting in France, where he was shell-shocked, and much of his memory has been obliterated. He is reduced to reading the Encyclopaedia Britannica to restock it. He sees Mrs Wannop regularly – she has moved to London, near his office – and has been helping her write propaganda articles. Sylvia thus suspects he has been having an affair with Valentine, though he has hardly seen her since she is working as a gym instructor in a girls’ school. Macmaster has married Mrs Duchemin (Mr Duchemin having died). He holds literary parties that have become celebrated, but they have kept their marriage secret, and Valentine always accompanies her to the parties to keep up appearances. Sylvia tells Tietjens that the cause of his father’s death was the rumours he heard that Tietjens lived on women and had got Valentine pregnant. The banker, Lord Port Scatho, arrives. His nephew, Brownlie, who is infatuated with Sylvia, has unfairly and humiliatingly dishonoured Tietjens’ cheques to his army Mess and his club. Tietjens reveals that he has been ordered to return to France the following day, and is determined to resign from the club. Tietjens’ elder brother, Mark, arrives, and the two brothers walk from Gray’s Inn to Whitehall, speaking candidly, as Tietjens disabuses Mark about the rumours defaming him and Valentine. It turns out that Mark, asked by his father to find out about Tietjens (in case he needed money), had asked his flatmate Ruggles to discover what people were saying about Tietjens, and that it was Ruggles who relayed the malicious gossip to their father. As they get to the War Office they run into Valentine, who has come to say goodbye to Tietjens. Mark talks to Valentine while they wait for Tietjens to come out of a meeting, and she recalls a rare conversation she had with Tietjens five or six weeks earlier, at one of Macmaster’s parties, during which she had realised he would return to the war. He told her how his memory was improving, and how he had been able to help Macmaster with one of his calculations. Macmaster has taken the credit for the work, and been awarded a knighthood on the strength of it. Mrs Duchemin/Macmaster, who has always disliked Tietjens (despite, or rather because of, all the help and money he has given Macmaster) has been trying to get him out of their lives, and tries to befriend Sylvia, inviting her to one of the parties. Valentine is shocked, and realises her friendship with Mrs Macmaster is finished. Outside the War Office, Valentine persuades the brothers to shake hands despite Tietjens’ anger. She and Tietjens agree to meet later that night – his last before returning to a likely death – and she agrees to become his mistress, after escorting her drunken brother home. But in the event, they … do not. The novel ends with Tietjens returning to his dark flat, recalling the events and non-events of the day and night, including his farewell to Macmaster, and especially his last conversations with Valentine.
War and the Mind
The technical challenge Ford had set himself in The Good Soldier was to find a form to wring every drop of interest and emotion out of the story of a man, Edward Ashburnham, too stupid to be able to articulate what was happening to him, told by a narrator, John Dowell, too different, and probably too obtuse, to be able to understand the story he was telling. The challenge Parade’s End represents is comparable but inverse: in it, supremely intelligent characters undergo experiences that threaten to destroy their minds. Though Ford had not gone to university, he had nevertheless had an extraordinarily bohemian education, surrounded by writers and artists, and he had an unusually capacious and quick mind. The writer Marie Belloc Lowndes, for instance – Violet Hunt’s friend, and Hilaire Belloc’s sister – said he was ‘brilliantly clever’.34 In Parade’s End Tietjens’ intellect is matched by Valentine’s – deriving perhaps less from Stella Bowen, who was an accomplished painter and wrote beautifully, but was not an intellectual, than from Margaret Postgate and perhaps other ‘bright young things’ such as Rebecca West. Sylvia Tietjens, though not an intellectual either, has Violet Hunt’s rapier mind and wit. But then, how could Tietjens have married anyone whom he couldn’t respect intellectually?
Ford is not usually thought of as a philosophical novelist. He doesn’t proceed, certainly, with the rigorous analytical clarity of a Thomas Mann. Nor does he write ‘novels of ideas’ in which characters exist as mouthpieces for debating positions. But he often wrote about thought, which he tended to couple with the arts; as when, in the closing chapter of A Mirror to France (which was probably the chapter written first, while at Cap Ferrat), he writes of looking from the rocks above the Mediterranean and asks: ‘Let us attempt to consider the world solely from the point of view of pure thought – and the Arts […].’35 Or when, in an essay from 1927, he wrote: ‘For militarism is the antithesis of Thought and the Arts, and it is by Thought and the Arts alone that the world can be saved.’36 Or, in his later book about Provence, when he says: ‘What I – and civilisation – most need is a place where, Truth having no divine right to glamour, experiments in thought abound.’37Parade’s End might be understood as such a thought-experiment. In it, Ford attempts to take stock of the impact the war had on the nature of thinking and consciousness. But it is also an art-experiment: investigating what literary forms and styles can best represent such processes.
Speech
It’s in the conversations that the characters’ qualities of mind especially flash. Some Do Not … contains some of the most brilliant dialogue in English fiction. Not the cleverness of Peacock’s conversation novels, nor the epigrammatic brilliance of Wilde, but rather, as in the dialogue of Shakespeare or Lawrence, speeches alive with a sense of the full complexity of the characters’ tangled lives behind them, felt through implication, association, hesitation, as the conversation jumps from one topic to another and they think with lightning speed. Some early critics were quick to grasp the nature of the achievement: ‘Mr. Ford manages, with quite extraordinary ingenuity, to dovetail into his admirable dialogue long passages of reflection which reveal the essentials of an extremely complicated tissue of events’, said one review; ‘Mr. Ford is one of the small band of novelists who can write dialogue that rings natural, though it is infused with wit and ideas’, said another.38 Bonamy Dobrée, who said that in Parade’s End ‘Mr. Ford proved himself a great novelist’, included a long excerpt from Some Do Not … in his 1934 book Modern Prose Style – from the extraordinary scene at the end of Part I, in which Christopher and Valentine argue as they ride through the silvery mist and begin to fall in love – as an example of a contemporary technique in which characterisation ‘is usually shown by small touches in conversation, sometimes directly revealing by the comments of another person’, and arguing that ‘This art of building up character entirely by conversation’ was taken to its limit by Ivy Compton Burnett.39 Some later critics have thought the dialogue parodic (‘Oh, no, Christopher … not from the club!’ etc.); but Ford’s contemporaries evidently considered he had a good ear for Edwardian idioms.
Ford had indeed long worried at how to represent conversation, and devotes some space to the problem in the section of his important memoir of Conrad discussing the techniques they developed:
One unalterable rule that we had for the rendering of conversations – for genuine conversations that are an exchange of thought, not interrogatories or statements of fact – was that no speech of one character should ever answer the speech that goes before it. This is almost invariably the case in real life where few people listen, because they are always preparing their own next speeches.40
The expressive problem he confronted in his pre-war fiction was the inexpressiveness of the English. Recalling one of his collaborative novels with Conrad, Ford wrote:
We both desired to get into situations, at any rate when anyone was speaking, the sort of indefiniteness that is characteristic of all human conversations, and particularly of English conversations that are almost always conducted entirely by means of allusions and unfinished sentences. If you listen to two Englishmen communicating by means of words, for you can hardly call it conversing, you will find that their speeches are little more than this: A. says: “What sort of a fellow is … you know!” B. replies: “Oh, he’s a sort of a …” and A. exclaims: “Ah, I always thought so ….” This is caused partly by sheer lack of vocabulary, partly by dislike for uttering any definite statement at all […].
The writer used to try to get that effect by almost directly rendering speeches that, practically, never ended so that the original draft of the Inheritors consisted of a series of vague scenes in which nothing definite was ever said. These scenes melted one into the other until the whole book, in the end, came to be nothing but a series of the very vaguest hints.41
Ford had written that first draft of The Inheritors (1901). Conrad’s role, he said, was ‘to give to each scene a final tap; these, in a great many cases, brought the whole meaning of the scene to the reader’s mind’.42Some Do Not … has moments of such indefiniteness, reminiscent of Ford’s earlier work such as A Call (1910), when the influence of Henry James was at its strongest. (‘Macmaster had answered only: “Ah!”’) In The Good Soldier Ford’s technical solution to the problem of English vagueness was – in a move that anticipates his use of Marwood’s perspective in Parade’s End – to use as a narrator the loquacious American Dowell puzzling over the reticences of his English friends. In Some Do Not …, by contrast, the characters are hyper-articulate. Outstanding minds like Tietjens’ and Valentine’s have plenty to say, as do the dilettante literati Macmaster and Mrs Duchemin. From the first chapter, in which Tietjens and Macmaster argue over Rossetti, the novel is full of discussion about ‘pure thought and the arts’. Soon after Some Do Not … was published, Ford sent his former collaborator a copy, saying: ‘I’m pretty sure it’s the best thing I’ve done. You’ll notice I’ve abandoned attempts at indirect reporting of speech – as an experiment. How late in life does one go on experimenting?’43 Behind this experiment in dramatic presentation lay not only his Alcestis adaptation and recent verse-dramas – A House (1921) and Mister Bosphorus (1923) – but also the discipline of writing a full-length play in 1923 about Madame Récamier, since lost. But in Parade’s End Ford elaborates a technique particular to the printed page rather than the performed script, continuing his experiments in the use of suspension dots in the rendering of speech – something he had developed early, but uses concentratedly in the tetralogy. As he explained:
The man of letters is continually troubled by the problem that, – in cold print, the inflections and the tempi of the human voice are as impossible of rendering as are scents and the tones of musical instruments. It is to be doubted if there is anyone who ever used a pen who has not from time to time tried by underlinings, capitals and queerly spacing his words to get something more on the paper than normal paper can bear […] For ourselves we limit ourselves to the use of…. to indicate the pauses by which the Briton – and the American now and then – recovers himself in order to continue a sentence. The typographical device is inadequate but how in the world…. how in the whole world else? – is one to render the normal English conversation?44
He found a way of describing it, at least, in a marvellous image, saying that ‘the noise that is English conversation’ resembles ‘the sound put forth by a slug eating lettuce […]’.45 In Some Do Not … – where the dots are even raised up into the title, as if to indicate the importance of the processes of suppression and implication for the whole novel – the pauses marked by the dots are less a matter of people swallowing their words, or mumbling with embarrassment or indecision, nor of the Pinteresque pause of menace and power-play, but rather of the characters letting their minds race around and beyond the words they have heard or said or are about to say. By the same token, Ford is concerned with how people express more than their words say, or can say. Rather than giving the eloquent dramatic speech of George Bernard Shaw, in which characters express themselves perfectly, saying everything they mean, Ford conveys the sense of powerful intellects through rich subtexts. The probing conversation between Sylvia, her mother, and the shrewd priest in the second chapter is another particularly fine example. If Ibsen and Chekhov were models for such techniques, so were Flaubert and Turgenev, whom Ford admired above all among writers.
There are brilliant set-pieces of hallucinatory dialogue in the later volumes, especially in No More Parades, as Tietjens composes poetry with McKechnie during a bombardment, and as he argues with Levin. But over the sequence as a whole, dialogue recedes and interior monologue becomes more prominent. Admittedly there are compelling interior monologues in Some Do Not … too, as when Tietjens walks with Valentine through the marshes in I.vi, or when she goes to meet him in Whitehall in II.v. But even these monologues partake of the dialogic, as when Tietjens imagines the kinds of comment people would make about the countryside, or when he remembers his earlier words coming back to him ‘as if from the other end of a long-distance telephone. A damn long-distance one! Ten years …’ In the ‘Preface’ to his Poems (1853), Matthew Arnold famously declared: ‘the dialogue of the mind with itself has commenced’.46Parade’s End traces the continuation of this process, in which an eighteenth-century-style public sphere of rational exchange gives way to an alienated modernity. It is as if the war, in taking people out of their normal social contexts, forces them in on themselves, making them confront their inner lives – emotional, moral, sexual – as never before. The tetralogy that begins with the dialogue experiments of Some Do Not … ends with Last Post’s series of internal monologues, Christopher’s absence, and Mark’s mutism.
Principles
Some Do Not … doesn’t explore intelligence for its own sake, though, but in its ethical dimension. Tietjens stands not just for mind, but for ethical principle. ‘Principles are like a skeleton map of a country—you know whether you’re going east or north’, he says. They can only be a rough guide, because, as Ford had written in the period the novel is set: ‘Modern life is so extraordinary, so hazy, so tenuous with, still, such definite and concrete spots in it […].’47 Tietjens is often described as an anachronistic figure: an eighteenth-century throwback; the last Tory or last English gentleman. The reality is more conflicted. In The Spirit of the People, Ford sees Englishness as the product of sustained immigration, writing of ‘that odd mixture of every kind of foreigner that is called the Anglo-Saxon race’.48 Tietjens’ name indicates that he is no exception. Sylvia speaks of how ‘The first Tietjens who came over with Dutch William, the swine, was pretty bad to the Papist owners….’ of the Groby estate. The Spirit of the People discusses Ford’s surprise at his grandfather Madox Brown writing of the unpicturesque king ‘I love Dutch William!’49 Yet, Ford argues, William III ‘stands for principles the most vital to the evolution of modern England’, and goes on to imagine Brown, ‘inspired by the Victorian canons, by principles of Protestantism, commercial stability, political economies, Carlylism, individualism and liberty’, evolving a picture of ‘a strong, silent, hard-featured, dominant personality’. The ‘Glorious Revolution’ is one of the moments Ford picks out in British history (like the Reformation and the Great War) as a turning-point at which the world enters a new phase of modernity. ‘Philosophically speaking’, he wrote, ‘it began that divorce of principle from life which, carried as far as it has been carried in England, has earned for the English the title of a nation of hypocrites.’50 Tietjens thus paradoxically inherits and represents this legacy, and exemplifies its qualities; but he is intellectually and morally opposed to its values and represents its fiercest critique. He is the subtlest of Ford’s many portrayals of embattled altruists. However, Some Do Not … is more nuanced than the earlier historical analysis. If Tietjens and Valentine stand for principles as against hypocrisy, Macmaster and Mrs Duchemin don’t so much represent pure hypocrisy as principles sliding into hypocrisy, under the banner of being ‘circumspect’. The ethical dimension of the novel is constructed through a series of such contrasts: Tietjens/Macmaster, Christopher/Sylvia, the Tietjens/Duchemin marriages, and so on. Certainly the more hypocritical don’t come out of the contrasts well. Yet Ford is not without sympathy for the forces pushing them towards their hypocrisies. Macmaster’s modest background means he can’t afford Tietjens’ seigneurial outspokenness (though the novel also shows how ill Tietjens can himself afford it, given the trouble it keeps landing him in). He has to be circumspect if he’s to work his own way up into ‘Society’.
The Spirit of the People is illuminating, too, about the contrast between Tietjens’ Protestantism and the Catholicism of his wife, mother-in-law, and Father Consett. ‘Catholicism, which is a religion of action and of frames of mind, is a religion that men can live up to’, Ford writes. Whereas ‘Protestantism no man can live up to, since it is a religion of ideals and of reason’. Thus as the Revolution ‘riveted Protestantism for good and evil upon the nation’s dominant types’ it stands as the defining moment of the divorce of principle from life.51 In fact Tietjens has little to say about Protestantism or the established church as such, though he does view it in such ideal terms: ‘His private ambition had always been for saintliness’ we are told: ‘his desire was to be a saint of the Anglican variety … as his mother had been’. His quest, which could be described as actually trying to live up to the Protestant ideal, is what incites Society at once to accuse him of delusional identification with Christ, and to assume he is in fact an adulterous hypocrite. His Marwoodian sweeping statements, many of which sound like cynical rationalism rather than Christianity, don’t help. One such is that which frames the novel, appearing in the first and last chapters: ‘I stand for monogamy and chastity. And for no talking about it. Of course, if a man who’s a man wants to have a woman he has her.’ At such moments he sounds more like a Fordian Catholic, seeing religion as freedom from abstract ideals rather than adherence to dogma – though the point is that he refuses to countenance hypocrisy. To that extent Tietjens represents a fusion of ethical viewpoints, whether religious or political. Ford wrote of ‘the true Toryism which is Socialism’.52 That’s the sense in which Tietjens is a Tory. Rather than representing an eccentric and anachronistic position, he is really a compendium of aspects of Englishness through history. Such complexities appealed to Ford as a novelist because he viewed the novel as a form that should rise above Victorian moralism, which in turn mattered to him because he saw individuals as themselves too contradictory and conflicting to be explicable in moralistic terms. In a novel with so intricate an architecture, pure thought and the arts are not just discussed but embodied by the characters, and by the patterns the novelist makes out of them.
‘Some Do Not’: Marriage, Adultery, and Divorce
The novel’s title-phrase, which echoes through it, is richly suggestive. One set of connotations is this kind of ethical discrimination, between those who do have principles, or adhere to the principles they advocate, and those who do not. The Shakespearean scholar A. C. Bradley had defined Hegel’s view of tragedy as consisting in ‘the self-division and intestinal warfare of the ethical substance’ – the clash of equally unanswerable moral imperatives, as when Antigone is torn between the obligations of family piety and the demands of civil law.53 Novels are more often driven by a sense of a division between the ethical and the social – what Ford calls the divorce of principle from life. Some Do Not
