The Holy Spirit—The Helper (Volume 7) E-Book

John Owen

• Herausgeber: Crossway
• Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
• Serie: The Complete Works of John Owen
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022

Beschreibung

Crossway Introduces the Collected Works of John Owen, Updated for Modern Readers Regarded as one of the greatest theologians in history, 17th-century pastor John Owen remains influential among those interested in Puritan and Reformed theology. The Complete Works of John Owen brings together all of Owen's original theological writing, including never-before-published work, reformatted for modern readers in 40 user-friendly volumes. Volume 7, The Holy Spirit—The Helper, includes the treatises "The Reason of Faith" and "The Causes, Ways, and Means of Understanding the Mind of God as Revealed in His Word." Exploring the topics of illumination and biblical interpretation, it features 50 pages of helpful introductions by editor Andrew Ballitch, along with outlines, footnotes, and other supporting resources. Released over a number of years, The Complete Works of John Owen will inspire a new generation of Bible readers and scholars to deeper faith. - Edited and Formatted for Modern Readers: Presents Owen's original work, newly typeset with outlines, text breaks, headings, and footnotes - Informative New Introductions: Provide historical, theological, and personal context - Supporting Resources Enhance Reading: Include extensive annotations with sources, definitions, and translations of ancient languages - Part of the Complete Works of John Owen Collection: Will release 40 hardcover volumes over a number of years - Perfect for Churches and Schools: Ideal for students, pastors, theologians, and those interested in the Holy Spirit and the Puritans

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The Complete Works of John Owen

The Complete Works of John Owen

The Trinity

Vol. 1  Communion with God

Vol. 2  The Trinity Defended: Part 1

Vol. 3  The Trinity Defended: Part 2

Vol. 4  The Person of Christ

Vol. 5  The Holy Spirit—His Person and Work: Part 1

Vol. 6  The Holy Spirit—His Person and Work: Part 2

Vol. 7  The Holy Spirit—The Helper

Vol. 8  The Holy Spirit—The Comforter

The Gospel

Vol. 9  The Death of Christ

Vol. 10  Sovereign Grace and Justice

Vol. 11  Justification by Faith Alone

Vol. 12  The Saints’ Perseverance: Part 1

Vol. 13  The Saints’ Perseverance: Part 2

Vol. 14  Apostasy from the Gospel

The Christian Life

Vol. 15  Sin and Temptation

Vol. 16  An Exposition of Psalm 130

Vol. 17  Heavenly-Mindedness

Vol. 18  Sermons and Tracts from the Civil Wars (1646–1649)

Vol. 19  Sermons from the Commonwealth and Protectorate (1650–1659)

Vol. 20  Sermons from the Early Restoration Years (1669–1675)

Vol. 21  Sermons from the Later Restoration Years (1676–1682)

Vol. 22  Miscellaneous Sermons and Lectures

The Church

Vol. 23  The Nature of the Church: Part 1

Vol. 24  The Nature of the Church: Part 2

Vol. 25  The Church Defended: Part 1

Vol. 26  The Church Defended: Part 2

Vol. 27  The Church’s Worship

Vol. 28  The Church, the Scriptures, and the Sacraments

Hebrews

Vol. 29  An Exposition of Hebrews: Part 1, Introduction to Hebrews

Vol. 30  An Exposition of Hebrews: Part 2, Christ’s Priesthood and the Sabbath

Vol. 31  An Exposition of Hebrews: Part 3, Jesus the Messiah

Vol. 32  An Exposition of Hebrews: Part 4, Hebrews 1–2

Vol. 33  An Exposition of Hebrews: Part 5, Hebrews 3–4

Vol. 34  An Exposition of Hebrews: Part 6, Hebrews 5–6

Vol. 35  An Exposition of Hebrews: Part 7, Hebrews 7–8

Vol. 36  An Exposition of Hebrews: Part 8, Hebrews 9–10

Vol. 37  An Exposition of Hebrews: Part 9, Hebrews 11–13

Latin Works

Vol. 38  The Study of True Theology

Shorter Works

Vol. 39  The Shorter Works of John Owen

Indexes

Vol. 40  Indexes

The Complete Works of John Owen

The Trinity

Volume 7

The Holy Spirit—

The Helper

John Owen

Introduced and Edited by

Andrew S. Ballitch

General Editors

Lee Gatiss and Shawn D. Wright

The Holy Spirit—The Helper

Copyright © 2023 by Crossway

Published by Crossway1300 Crescent StreetWheaton, Illinois 60187

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher, except as provided for by USA copyright law. Crossway® is a registered trademark in the United States of America.

Cover design: Jordan Singer

Marble Paper Artist: Vanessa Reynoso, Marbled Paper Studio

First printing 2023

Printed in China

Scripture quotations marked KJV are from the King James Version of the Bible. Public domain.

Hardcover ISBN: 978-1-4335-6020-0 ePub ISBN: 978-1-4335-8576-0 PDF ISBN: 978-1-4335-8574-6 Mobipocket ISBN: 978-1-4335-8575-3

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Owen, John, 1616–1683, author. | Ballitch, Andrew S., editor. 

Title: The Holy Spirit — the Helper / John Owen ; edited and introduced by

Andrew S. Ballitch ; Lee Gatiss and Shawn D. Wright, general editors. 

Other titles: Pneumatologia. Selections

Description: Wheaton, Illinois : Crossway, 2023. | Series: The complete works of John Owen ; volume 7 | Includes bibliographical references and index. 

Identifiers: LCCN 2022004734 (print) | LCCN 2022004735 (ebook) | ISBN 9781433560200 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781433585746 (pdf) | ISBN 9781433585753 (mobipocket) | ISBN 9781433585760 (epub)

Subjects: LCSH: Holy Spirit—Early works to 1800. 

Classification: LCC BT121.3 .O94 2022 (print) | LCC BT121.3 (ebook) | DDC 231/.3—dc23/eng/20220615

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022004734

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022004735

Crossway is a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers.

2022-10-26 11:06:24 AM

Volume 7

Contents

Works Preface

Editor’s Introduction

The Reason of Faith

The Causes, Ways, and Means of Understanding the Mind of God

General Index

Scripture Index

Works Preface

John Owen (1616–1683) is one of the most significant, influential, and prolific theologians that England has ever produced. His work is of such a high caliber that it is no surprise to find it still in demand more than four centuries after his birth. As a son of the Church of England, a Puritan preacher, a statesman, a Reformed theologian and Bible commentator, and later a prominent Nonconformist and advocate of toleration, he is widely read and appreciated by Christians of different types all over the globe, not only for the profundity of his thinking but also for the depth of his spiritual insight.

Owen was born in the year that William Shakespeare died, and in terms of his public influence, he was a rising star in the 1640s and at the height of his power in the 1650s. As chaplain to Oliver Cromwell, dean of Christ Church, and vice-chancellor of Oxford University, he wielded a substantial degree of power and influence within the short-lived English republic. Yet he eventually found himself on the losing side of the epic struggles of the seventeenth century and was ousted from his position of national preeminence. The Act of Uniformity in 1662 effectively barred him from any role in the established church, yet it was in the wilderness of those turbulent post-Restoration years that he wrote many of his most momentous contributions to the world of theological literature, despite being burdened by opposition, persecution, family tragedies, and illness.

There was an abortive endeavor to publish a uniform edition of Owen’s works in the early eighteenth century, but this progressed no further than a single folio volume in 1721. A century later (1826), Thomas Russell met with much more success when he produced a collection in twenty-one volumes. The appetite for Owen only grew; more than three hundred people had subscribed to the 1721 and 1826 editions of his works, but almost three thousand subscribed to the twenty-four-volume set produced by William H. Goold from 1850 onward. That collection, with Goold’s learned introductions and notes, became the standard edition. It was given a new lease on life when the Banner of Truth Trust reprinted it several times beginning in 1965, though without some of Owen’s Latin works, which had appeared in Goold’s edition, or his massive Hebrews commentary, which Banner did eventually reprint in 1991. Goold corrected various errors in the original seventeenth- and eighteenth-century publications, some of which Owen himself had complained of, as well as certain grammatical errors. He thoroughly revised the punctuation, numeration of points, and Scripture references in Owen and presented him in a way acceptable to nineteenth-century readers without taking liberties with the text.

Since the mid-nineteenth century, and especially since the reprinting of Goold’s edition in the mid-twentieth century, there has been a great flowering of interest in seventeenth-century Puritanism and Reformed theology. The recent profusion of scholarship in this area has resulted in a huge increase of attention given to Owen and his contribution to these movements. The time has therefore come to attempt another presentation of Owen’s body of work for a new century. This new edition is more than a reprint of earlier collections of Owen’s writings. As useful as those have been to us and many others, they fail to meet the needs of modern readers who are often familiar with neither the theological context nor the syntax and rhetorical style of seventeenth-century English divinity.

For that reason, we have returned again to the original editions of Owen’s texts to ensure the accuracy of their presentation here but have conformed the spelling to modern American standards, modernized older verb endings, reduced the use of italics where they do not clarify meaning, updated some hyphenation forms, modernized capitalization both for select terms in the text and for titles of Owen’s works, refreshed the typesetting, set lengthy quotations in block format, and both checked and added Scripture references in a consistent format where necessary. Owen’s quotations of others, however, including the various editions of the Bible he used or translated, are kept as they appear in his original. His marginal notes and footnotes have been clearly marked in footnotes as his (with “—Owen” appearing at the end of his content) to distinguish them from editorial comments. Foreign languages such as Greek, Hebrew, and Latin (which Owen knew and used extensively) have been translated into modern English, with the original languages retained in footnotes for scholarly reference (also followed by “—Owen”). If Goold omitted parts of the original text in his edition, we have restored them to their rightful place. Additionally, we have attempted to regularize the numbering system Owen employed, which was often imprecise and inconsistent; our order is 1, (1), [1], {1}, and 1st. We have also included various features to aid readers’ comprehension of Owen’s writings, including extensive introductions and outlines by established scholars in the field today, new paragraph breaks marked by a pilcrow (¶), chapter titles and appropriate headings (either entirely new or adapted from Goold), and explanatory footnotes that define archaic or obscure words and point out scriptural and other allusions in the text. When a contents page was not included in the original publication, we have provided one. On the rare occasions when we have added words to the text for readability, we have clearly marked them using square brackets. Having a team of experts involved, along with the benefit of modern online database technology, has also enabled us to make the prodigious effort to identify sources and citations in Owen that Russell and Goold deliberately avoided or were unable to locate for their editions.

Owen did not use only one English translation of the Bible. At various times, he employed the Great Bible, the Geneva Bible, the Authorized Version (KJV), and his own paraphrases and translations from the original languages. We have not sought to harmonize his biblical quotations to any single version. Similarly, we have left his Hebrew and Greek quotations exactly as he recorded them, including the unpointed Hebrew text. When it appears that he has misspelled the Hebrew or Greek, we have acknowledged that in a footnote with reference to either Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia or Novum Testamentum Graece.

This new edition presents fresh translations of Owen’s works that were originally published in Latin, such as his Θεολογούμενα Παντοδαπά (1661) and A Dissertation on Divine Justice (which Goold published in an amended eighteenth-century translation). It also includes certain shorter works that have never before been collected in one place, such as Owen’s prefaces to other people’s works and many of his letters, with an extensive index to the whole set.

Our hope and prayer in presenting this new edition of John Owen’s complete works is that it will equip and enable new generations of readers to appreciate the spiritual insights he accumulated over the course of his remarkable life. Those with a merely historical interest will find here a testimony to the exceptional labors of one extraordinary figure from a tumultuous age, in a modern and usable critical edition. Those who seek to learn from Owen about the God he worshiped and served will, we trust, find even greater riches in his doctrine of salvation, his passion for evangelism and missions, his Christ-centered vision of all reality, his realistic pursuit of holiness, his belief that theology matters, his concern for right worship and religious freedom, and his careful exegetical engagement with the text of God’s word. We echo the words of the apostle Paul that Owen inscribed on the title page of his book Χριστολογία (1679), “I count all things but loss for the excellency of the knowledge of Christ Jesus my Lord, for whom I have suffered the loss of all things, and do count them but dung that I may win Christ” (Phil. 3:8).

Lee Gatiss

Cambridge, England

Shawn D. Wright

Louisville, Kentucky, United States

Editor’s Introduction

Andrew S. Ballitch

John Owen and the Holy Spirit

Born into a humble, moderately Puritan clergy family during the reign of James I (1566–1625) and ordained as a priest in the Church of England under Charles I (1600–1649), John Owen (1616–1683) became a preacher to the Long Parliament in 1646, preacher of the regicide in 1649, and chaplain to Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658) during the invasions of Ireland and Scotland in 1649 and 1650. His academic career boasted the positions of dean of Christ Church, Oxford, from 1651 to 1660 and vice-chancellor of the university from 1652 to 1657. Owen’s was a principal voice in Cromwell’s religious settlement, and he became involved in the downfall of Richard Cromwell (1626–1712) in 1659, which precipitated the Restoration of the Stuart monarchy in 1660. Owen’s recent biographer, Crawford Gribben, sums up the latter decades of his life this way: “The changing legal and cultural circumstances of the reign of Charles II (1630–1685) forced Owen to withdraw from public life and facilitated the re-energizing of his already prolific publishing career in defense of high Calvinist theology and the toleration of Protestant dissenters.”1 One of the most significant fruits of this reenergized publishing career was his work on the Holy Spirit.

Owen’s contribution to pneumatology was purposefully and self-consciously new. Few have dared such a detailed exposition of the doctrine of the Holy Spirit, and fewer still accomplished a masterpiece on the topic. If Owen’s commentary on Hebrews is the epitome of his exegesis, his treatises on the Holy Spirit represent his mature theological reflection, occupying the last decade of his life. His Πνευματολογια, or, A Discourse concerning the Holy Spirit (1674) is a stand-alone treatment of the Holy Spirit’s nature and mission, operation in the Old Testament, work of regeneration, and role in sanctification. But his pen continued, and he completed five smaller treatises on various aspects of the Spirit’s work: The Reason of Faith (1677); TheCauses, Ways, and Means of Understanding the Mind of God (1678); The Holy Spirit in Prayer (1683); and The Holy Spirit as a Comforter published posthumously with A Discourse of Spiritual Gifts (1693). These five shorter treatises constitute volumes 7–8 of the present Works and address the topics of illumination, biblical interpretation, extemporaneous prayer, Christian comfort, and ordinary and extraordinary spiritual gifts, all centering on and unified by the role of the Spirit.

This introduction will proceed with two primary goals, which also determine its organization. The first is to provide an adequate, but by no means comprehensive, historical context. Owen did not write his treatises in a vacuum. He had concerns, experiences, and interlocutors that motivated and informed his writing. These must be identified and accounted for if true comprehension of Owen’s ideas and theology is to be achieved. In this vein, a brief narrative of the events leading to the Restoration of the English monarchy, the rise of the episcopal Church of England, and the formation of English Dissent will be provided, followed by a treatment of Roman Catholicism in this milieu and the sectarians, with particular focus on the Quakers and Socinians. The importance of these topics and groups will become apparent in due course. The second goal is to offer a thematic discussion of each treatise, including an outline of the arguments and the noting of major themes. Addressing these two topics will aid the reader in understanding Owen and serve as a guide in the eminently worthy endeavor of reading his writings themselves.

The Restoration Church of England and English Dissent

The tumultuous middle decades of seventeenth-century England could rightly be categorized as wars of religion, wars largely precipitated by Charles I. He threw his royal support behind a revolution in the Church of England, he provoked rebellions in both Ireland and Scotland, he compromised the relationship between crown and Parliament, with civil war in all three British kingdoms ensuing. The period beginning with the dissolution of Parliament in 1629 until the Long Parliament commenced in 1640 is conventionally referred to as the personal rule of Charles Stuart. He raised money in creative and unpopular ways and saw the emergence of a strong Roman Catholic presence at his court.2But most significantly, Charles backed William Laud (1573–1645), whose meteoric rise through ecclesiastical ranks took him from bishop of Bath and Wells to archbishop of Canterbury (1633) via a stint as bishop of London.

Moderate Calvinism had remained the accepted orthodoxy under James I, but changing beliefs under his son Charles were accompanied by changing attitudes toward worship. For English Arminians of the late 1620s and 1630s, and, most importantly, for Laud, God’s grace was conveyed primarily through the sacraments. Sermons told people about God, whereas God could be experienced directly through the sacraments, especially through the Lord’s Supper. This had major implications for places of worship. Not only did Laud launch an effort of beautification; he demanded that Communion tables be replaced with permanent altars and that they be railed off in the east end of churches. This appalled the Puritans because the changes smacked of transubstantiation and the Mass. Laudians did not just repudiate the predestinarian doctrines of mainstream Reformed Christianity; they insisted on ceremonies in a style consciously opposed to Puritan sensitivities. The episcopacy became nonnegotiable. Moreover, Laudians assumed a posture toward the Church of Rome that saw it as a true church in error, rather than no church at all and opposed to legitimate Christianity. All of this top-down policy had the full support of the king and at times was brutally enforced.3

When Charles decided to force a version of the Book of Common Prayer on his Scottish Presbyterian realm, war ensued and quickly spread. The Scots drew up a national covenant and took up arms against the king. This rebellion, known as the Bishops’ War (1639–1640), bankrupted Charles and was a royal failure. Because only Parliament could levy taxes, Charles reluctantly summoned it in 1640. The Short Parliament was decidedly anti-Laud and opposed to arbitrary government, and Charles dismissed it after only three weeks. The convocation of the clergy that met parallel to the Short Parliament and continued after its dismissal produced a set of canons that doubled down on Laudianism and seemed to be aimed deliberately at enflaming the situation. The infamous “etcetera oath” that gave bishops a blank check regarding what they could demand of clergy and churches received the Scots’ ire. At this point, the Scottish Covenanters invaded the North, and Charles was forced to call what came to be known as the Long Parliament, which began in 1640 and continued in one form or another until 1653.4

Divisions broke into violent civil war in 1642. Royalists cited obligations to conscience and honor in justification for their support of the king, as well as a general detestation of rebellion. Parliamentarians were persuaded that true religion was in mortal danger. Charles believed in a divine right of kings and absolute monarchy. He would not compromise or even negotiate about the heavy handedness of his reign to that point. To oppose the king, in his estimation, was to oppose God. Add this to suspicions of Roman Catholicism—which found evidence in Charles’s Catholic wife, Laud’s imposing of Catholic externals in worship, and the rebellion of Irish Catholics in the name of the king in 1641—and the result was the raising of armies. Parliament was determined to complete what the Reformation had started more than one hundred years earlier and ensure the establishment of true Protestantism. The year 1643 saw Royalist victories, but things began to shift with the Scottish alliance expressed as the Solemn League and Covenant. The pendulum swing gained unstoppable momentum in 1644 with Parliament’s establishment of the New Model Army, culminating in Charles’s surrender in 1646. The next three years included failed negotiations with Charles and the New Model Army’s quelling of uprisings in both Ireland and Scotland with Oliver Cromwell at the helm, as well as its purging from Parliament all those opposed to putting the king on trial for treason. The Rump Parliament (1648–1653), consisting of what was left of the members of Parliament, found Charles guilty of treason, which was followed in January 1649 by the previously unthinkable and internationally shocking regicide.5

The machinery of government and the Church of England infrastructure collapsed in the chaos of the early 1640s. Bishops lay low or went into hiding, but the end result was still the execution of Laud in 1645 and the dissolution of the office of bishop entirely in 1646. This opened space for a variety of voluntary congregations and sects, and the unfettered promotion of ideas through an uncensored press. The Westminster Assembly, an advisory body to Parliament, began work in 1643 to create a new constitution, directory of worship, and confession for the English Church. The ninety English divines making up the Assembly well represented Puritanism, which divided mostly into Presbyterian and Independent factions. Parliament committed itself to the former through the Solemn League and Covenant, but the latter coincided with Cromwell’s sympathies; eventually, the Independents would have their day. But for some time, the Church of England existed without leadership or institutions. Parliament eventually banned the Book of Common Prayer and ordered the Westminster Assembly’s Directory for Public Worship to be used in its place, though this was largely unenforceable. With the rise of the Independents to greater prominence, the mood in general changed to one of toleration and religious liberty for sectarians.6

The 1650s were a decade of political crisis in which responsibility for bringing order to an unstable and turbulent society fell to Cromwell, who never successfully handed over power to a civilian government. Officially, the Rump Parliament governed in the absence of a king and the House of Lords. Propaganda touted the government as a representative republic, but the situation was tenuous. The execution of the king stoked Royalist sympathies in Ireland and Scotland, and the threat of Charles II’s gaining continental support loomed large. The Rump sold off royal lands and made essential military improvements. Cromwell not only defended England from Ireland and Scotland but also conquered these countries. In the aftermath of Charles’s beheading, the only two groups retaining some authority were the army and the Rump. As a leader in both, Cromwell attempted to bridge the gap. He eventually dismissed the Rump in 1653, as it had become, in his estimation, woefully inefficient at accomplishing its purpose of reform, and set up a provisional assembly, the Barebones Parliament (1653), in its place. Lasting only six months, Barebones gave way to Cromwell’s becoming Lord Protector of the Commonwealth.7

As attempts at a religious and political settlement were continually disappointed, Cromwell gave his attention to security and reform of sin in society. His five-year tenure as Protector (1653–1658) was a period of peace, broad toleration for orthodox Protestants, unofficial toleration of unorthodox sects who did not disturb the peace, and the legislation of holiness in the Puritan mold. He appointed his son Richard his successor at his death in1658, which turned out to be a mistake, as the younger Cromwell was able to control neither the army nor Parliament. The Puritan project failed, disillusion reigned, and Charles II was invited by Parliament to take the throne.8

Charles II was no absolutist. Rather, he was determined to keep his throne and indulge his appetites. Regarding religion, he was apathetic unless involvement in religious disputes became politically advantageous.9 His interests in the years immediately after the Restoration lay in moderation, a conciliar tone, and promises of compromise. From 1660 to 1662, significant lobbying and negotiation happened. The Presbyterians wanted inclusion in the church settlement. Congregational and radical groups desired toleration of their independent worship. Acceptance of a range of Protestant opinions initially looked hopeful; the spirit seemed to be one of reconciliation. Charles even offered bishoprics to some high-profile Presbyterians—proposing presbytery within episcopacy—confirmed the majority of Cromwellian clergy without episcopal ordination or a religious test, and made Puritans his chaplains. But compromise divided the purist and pragmatic Presbyterians, Independents did not want inclusion at all, the number of Puritan members of Parliament fell, Thomas Venner (1608–1661) and his Fifth Monarchist uprising (1657) changed the societal mood, and attempts at a comprehensive, big-tent Anglican Church ultimately failed.10

The 1662 Act of Uniformity, with its Book of Common Prayer, was an intentional purge. The prayer book was imposed exclusively, it alone could be used in worship, and all other forms of worship were outlawed. It mandated episcopal ordination. It demanded that clergy stand before their congregations and affirm the prayer book without reservation or qualification, denounce taking up arms against the king, and condemn the Solemn League and Covenant. The act was designed to be intolerable to Puritans, and it surely was. Roughly one thousand beneficed ministers, schoolteachers, and university fellows gave up their positions, bringing the ejected number to two thousand since the Restoration.11 Uniformity of worship was in contest with comprehensive and tolerant religion, a battle the former would finally win within the Church of England.12

A series of laws known as the Clarendon Code tried to stamp out the very existence of nonconformity, with the rise of dissenting denominations as the net result. The 1661 Corporation Act required all officials to receive Communion in the Church of England. In 1664, the Conventicle Act outlawed religious gatherings of more than four people, not including one’s family or servants, that did not use the prayer book. The Five Mile Act of 1665 forbade ejected clergy from coming within five miles of their previous parishes. The 1670 Conventicle Act was particularly malicious. It authorized the seizure of property to cover the cost of fines, penalized officials who failed to prosecute, and ordered one-third of the fines be issued to informants. These measures were carried out with varying degrees of zeal and found opponents at every level of society.13

Politics took a sudden turn in 1672 with Charles’s pro-French foreign policy amid war with the Dutch, when he attempted the Declaration of Indulgence to gain the favor of the dissenting movement in his realm as well as to please the French with whom he was secretly negotiating. This indulgence gave relative freedom to dissenting churches that registered with the government, but Charles was forced to revoke the declaration in 1673 because of anti-Catholic backlash. The final decade or so of Charles’s reign was marked by the Popish Plot (1678) and Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681). The latter arose from Parliament’s attempts to bar James II (1633–1701), Charles’s brother, from the royal line of succession because of his conversion to Roman Catholicism. The situation was tumultuous to a degree similar to the one that had led to civil war. While revolution was this time avoided, English society became deeply politicized, with the partisan labels of Whig and Tory coming into play at this juncture. Most Dissenters were Whig exclusionists, and Anglican Tory royalists feared another Puritan revolt. Tory reaction brought the worst persecution of Dissent in the Restoration period.14

The short reign of James II, beginning in 1685, was one marked by reforms supportive of toleration and liberty of conscience that led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689. James supported the Repealers, who wanted to reverse the laws penalizing religious nonconformity, and settled on a strategy that privileged reform rather than repression. He often did not exact penalties for nonconformity in an effort to co-opt, rather than coerce, opponents. As a Roman Catholic granting toleration of Roman Catholics, along with other religious minorities, James evoked increasing opposition from the Whigs and alienated the Tories, who feared freedom for Catholics might result in a Catholic takeover of the country. The Glorious Revolution resulted when Parliament invited William of Orange (1650–1702), married to James’s daughter Mary (1662–1694), to invade England and stymie a Catholic dynasty. His forces met little to no armed resistance, and William and Mary were installed as dual monarchs. The 1689 Act of Toleration that ensued gave freedom of worship to orthodox Protestant Dissenters.15

The rise and fall of John Owen’s public life coincided with the rise and fall of the Puritan project that began with the Civil War and ended with the demise of the Commonwealth in 1660. The Laudian reforms at Oxford forced Owen to abandon his academic prospects as a student at Oxford University in 1637. After five years of living in obscurity, at the outbreak of civil war, Owen moved to London, sided with Parliament, and made a name for himself by taking advantage of the lax publishing restrictions.16 Beginning in 1646, he was regularly invited to preach before Parliament, even as he was siding with the Independent New Model Army and its vision of general toleration against the Presbyterian Parliament and its desire for national religious uniformity. His transfer of allegiance occasioned his becoming the “unofficial preacher-in-chief of the revolutionary regime.”17 He preached to the Rump Parliament the day after Charles I was beheaded, and he participated in military tours to Ireland and Scotland as Cromwell’s personal chaplain and confidant. Cromwell then gave Owen his academic positions in the senior leadership of Oxford University.18Frustrated with failed attempts at a religious settlement and the perceived declension of Cromwell’s court, Owen fell out of favor with the Cromwell family and became associated with those opposed to Richard. By the time of the Restoration, Owen had returned to clerical life as the pastor of a gathered congregation.19 He lived the rest of his days in the context of social exclusion, political retaliation, and, at times, severe persecution, though Owen himself was sheltered from extreme forms of the latter. But he learned to navigate the treacherous times and made some of his most enduring theological contributions during this period.20 In a pamphlet from 1681 entitled A Dialogue between the Pope and the Devil, about Owen and Baxter, an anonymous author adeptly and satirically described the press, calling it “as large as Hell; and, like a Horse-Leach, it sucks, and is never satisfied.” And in reference to Owen’s vast output, the pamphlet said he had “a kind of ambitious itch to scribble.”21 Owen published tirelessly in his final decades, some of the fruits of his labor being these treatises on the Holy Spirit.

Church of Rome

Catholicism was doubly stigmatized in the English imagination, as it was both foreign and familiar. Catholics were foreign, different, and therefore necessarily inferior. At the same time, they were close and threatening.22 At times posing a real threat, but most often only a perceived one, an English Catholic community existed throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries while its country forged a Protestant identity. This community was marked by a struggle resulting from conflicting allegiances. Remaining true to pope, king, and conscience; maintaining religious integrity; and at the same time displaying basic English loyalty proved at times impossible, which regularly played into the politics of persecution and plots.23

Many English Catholics maintained the Roman faith throughout the tumultuous reigns of the Tudors Henry (r. 1509–1547), Edward (r. 1547–1553), and Mary (r. 1553–1558), and under Elizabeth’s (r. 1558–1603) church settlement. This community underwent something of a revival beginning in the 1570s as Jesuit missionaries and seminary priests brought to it leadership and a voice. Forced to worship in secret, always marginalized and sometimes persecuted, this underground Catholic community of recusants solidified in the later years of Elizabeth’s long tenure on the throne. As the movement became linked in the official and public mind with treasonable conspiracy in alliance with Spain, the attitude of English Catholics changed to missionary status as a minority under a seemingly permanent Protestant settlement.24

Catholics in England seemed to have a friend, though not a sympathizer, in James I. If never explicitly with words, implicitly with his actions, James made life easier for nonconformists of all stripes. At the succession of his son Charles I, prospects for the Catholic community looked the brightest they had in generations. England as a missionary province with a small, slightly expanding Catholic population is evidenced by the increased number of Jesuits in the early Stuart years. Eighteen Jesuits in 1598 grew to 193 in 1639. The relative relief and lack of harassment came at a cost, however. The Crown acquired a stake in Catholic survival through recusancy fines. A fiscalized penal system was regularized into compositions, or periodic payments to the king in lieu of recusancy fines. This system served as a framework for Catholic survival leading up to the Civil War, albeit an increasingly expensive one. As Charles looked for alternative sources of income in the 1630s, compositions rose from six thousand to thirty-two thousand pounds per year.25

English Catholics met a crisis in the Civil War. They suddenly declined from the status of relative favor to being persecuted. Renewed suffering beset the community, and above all its priests, that had built a comparatively stable existence in England over the previous decades. Antipopery raged, and security turned to extreme danger, including brutal executions. While Puritans threatened the Crown, they blamed the Catholics. Pro-Catholic advisors had led Charles to invade Scotland. Catholics stirred up rebellion in Ireland. All the while Archbishop Laud, to some a crypto-Catholic, attempted to make the Church of England look like the Church of Rome. Or so the reasoning went, and the Puritans had to oppose Charles to keep Roman influences out of England’s national church.26 Anti-Catholic rhetoric rose as it had under Elizabeth, when suspicions were high regarding English-Catholic cooperation with Spain. Or as it had in the wake of the Gunpowder Plot (1605). Now the Irish Rebellion (1641) especially intensified anti-Catholicism so as to portray both Stuart absolutism and Laudianism as popish in their essence and to mobilize Protestant parliamentarians to declare war against their king. Catholics were painted as a treasonous, ruthless, and murderous liability.27

Protestant fears of the Catholics as a solid military support for Charles were exaggerated, but propagandists painted the royalist forces in the north as a “Catholic army.” This, added to conspiracy, meant that Catholics did not fare well in Parliament-controlled lands during the Civil War or anywhere in the country in its aftermath. At the same time, real possibilities materialized for accommodation between English Catholics and the government in the late 1640s and 1650s.28Yes, there were two executions during Oliver Cromwell’s time in power, though he was not in favor of them; eight priests were arrested in 1657, though they were subjected only to the Lord Protector’s mocking. This stood in marked contrast to the brutality of antipopery in the early 1640s.29 The 1650s were overall a mild decade for Catholics in England. Congregations largely functioned quietly and unnoticed. Cromwell’s secretary, John Rushworth (1612–1690) assisted Catholic gentry in preserving their estates. Cromwell himself entertained leading Catholics such as Lord Arundell (ca. 1607–1694), Lord Brudenell (ca. 1583–1663), and Sir Kenelm Digby (1603–1665).30

Charles II showed promise of toleration, especially in the months leading up to the Restoration and its early years, but he had to retract promises and commitments. While true toleration did not materialize, Catholic numbers increased, and hopes seemed to be high. By the 1670s, “popery” was a well-worn umbrella term of abuse for almost anything politically objectionable to mainstream thought. The Jesuits, properly viewed as the political arm of the Roman Catholic Church on the continent, were particularly repulsive to the English mind. The “Popish Plot” of 1678 was a last attempt to drum up fears of popery as sedition. The middle of the 1680s saw recusancy fines drop to a negligible sum and very few arrests. The last clerical execution was 1681. Systematic persecution of nonconformity fizzled out across the board.31

The hysteria around the Popish Plot from 1678 to 1681 began with a rumor excited by Titus Oates (1649–1705), which gained traction because of a pattern of suspicion aimed at Catholics.32 Fears of Catholics had been on the rise as a result of Charles’s pro-French foreign policy, French expansion under Louis XIV (1638–1715), and the conversion of James Stuart to Catholicism.33 Oates, the son of a Baptist preacher, was received into the Catholic Church and went to Jesuit colleges in France and Spain. He returned to England touting evidence of a Catholic conspiracy to bring England back under Roman ecclesiastical rule. The paranoia stirred up by Oates, though with an elaborate fiction, was exploited by the Crown’s opposition. They were unhappy with the favor the king showed to France and Catholics associated with monarchial absolutism.34 These years made it obvious that persecution of Catholics had little to do with religion; political popery was not the same thing as religious Catholicism. As the former was resolved, persecution of the latter dissipated.35

The efforts of Charles II and then especially James II to offer indulgence to Catholics in the 1670s and 1680s were interpreted by many as attempts to reimpose the monopoly of the Church of Rome. James’s protoleration strategy, which of course did not exclusively benefit Catholics, was his undoing.36 Indeed, for those living in the seventeenth century, the date that Catholicism’s fate was sealed as a minority sect was different from how it is reckoned by historians looking back.37 Whatever the favor enjoyed by Catholics under James II, a dramatic downturn took place at the Glorious Revolution. Catholics were severely handicapped in society along with the rest of noncommunicant Anglicans, and at the same time anti-Catholicism served as nationalistic fuel for the emerging Protestant British Empire.

The fact of the matter is this: a Catholic community existed in England throughout Owen’s lifetime and at times even flourished to a degree. International Catholicism was Tridentine, which by definition gave it an anti-Protestant posture. Owen, as part of the international Reformed movement—reading and sometimes writing in Latin, the language of international scholarship and politics—was very much aware of the Catholic Counter-Reformation. Whether real or imagined, the specter of Roman Catholicism was ever present in the minds of seventeenth-century Englishmen, Owen included. The fear extended both to homegrown Catholic sedition and to external threats such as Spain and France.

Owen was reared within the Puritan movement, which self-identified as true Protestantism in juxtaposition to both the medieval Catholicism of England’s past and all of its accretions in the Church of England. This religious outlook and fervor was fueled partially by the remembrance of bloody persecution under Mary Tudor in the middle of the sixteenth century and events like the failed invasion of the Spanish Armada at the end of the century or the Gunpowder Plot at the beginning of the seventeenth century. Such events would have been instilled in Owen’s mind, and the warnings they messaged against the Church of Rome could not have been missed. The Irish Rebellion happened during Owen’s early adulthood, just before his rise to prominence. The Popish Plot dominated the last years of his life. Owen listened and contributed to the anti-popery rhetoric of the middle decades of the seventeenth century. While the treatises in this volume are not focused on anti-Roman polemics, Owen often does self-identify in contradistinction to Catholicism, which makes perfect sense given his context.

In Owen’s discussions of the Holy Spirit as illuminator, comforter, and spiritual gift giver, Roman Catholicism serves as an explicit foil for his arguments. In The Reason of Faith (1677) and Causes, Ways, and Means (1678), Owen navigates between an overemphasis on reason, on the one hand, and the Spirit, on the other, when interpreting the Bible. In so doing, he carefully avoids an appeal to anything like the Roman curia; the Catholic appeal to tradition illustrates what must be rejected. In The Holy Spirit as a Comforter (1693), Owen weighs in on the Protestant and especially Puritan emphasis of an individual’s assurance of his or her salvation. The Spirit is given to and indwells the believer, resulting in assurance of final salvation by guaranteeing its completion. The Catholic Church supplants the Spirit’s work in this regard with the sacramental system, a system that professedly cannot provide ultimate assurance. Further, in A Discourse of Spiritual Gifts (1693), Owen wants to distance himself from the enthusiasm of radical dissent with all of its spiritual excesses. Even more, however, Owen views the rise of the Church of Rome, with its authoritarian pope and superstition, as a by-product of the neglect of true spiritual gifts. Ministry is supernatural and at the same time ordinary.

Owen’s The Work of the Holy Spirit in Prayer (1682) contrasts the Spirit’s work in prayer with liturgical impositions (or set forms of prayer) and mental prayer, both of which are negatively illustrated by the Church of Rome. If it were a treatise on prayer in general, it would be a measly offering, but with its focus on the Spirit’s work, and with Owen’s sights set on liturgical prayers, explicitly in the context of the Church of Rome, this treatise brings clarity and provides insight to an important communal and private Christian experience. In his preface, Owen lays out his design to combat the worship of Roman Catholicism, summarized by the blanket designation “prayers of human composure.” It should be noted that much of Owen’s criticism parallels the Puritan tradition’s criticism of the Church of England and its prayer book. The decades following the Restoration were not the first time that Puritans shrouded their condemnation of prayer book worship with explicit reference to Roman Catholicism. The 1620s and 1630s had witnessed the same tactic.38 Owen’s readers knew exactly what he was doing.

Owen’s censure of prayer book worship caused significant controversy among Dissenters in the several years following his death. Richard Baxter (1615–1691), in Catholic Communion Defended against Both Extremes (1684), interacts with a supposedly widely circulated manuscript of Owen’s that enumerated twelve arguments for separation from the Church of England. Baxter quotes the manuscript verbatim as he takes issue with the conclusion, and the content is consistent with Owen’s The Work of the Holy Spirit in Prayer. The author of the manuscript is arguing for separation from the Church of England’s worship based on the regulative principle of worship.39 Baxter makes clear that he remains unconvinced, as his defense of his own participation in communion with the established church makes clear.40 This precipitated a fury of publication. For example, an anonymous defender of Owen, in A Vindication of the Late Reverend and Learned John Owen (1684), challenged Baxter by concluding that the twelve arguments manuscript was not even Owen’s work. It was simply not as accurate and tightly argued as the sources confirmed to be Owen’s.41 Owen’s anonymous vindicator and Baxter continued to go back and forth.42Isaac Chauncy (1632–1712), Owen’s successor as pastor of the church in London, also weighed in on the debate in his A Theological Dialogue, in which he set the words of Baxter’s initial discourse in dialogue with Owen, for whom Chauncy himself spoke.43 Baxter’s Whether Parish Congregations Be True Christian Churches was his capstone to the whole debate.44 Baxter’s penchant for criticizing Owen and others has been well documented, by both his contemporaries and his twenty-first-century biographers.45

However, Baxter was not alone in his interaction with Owen’s views on liturgical prayers. In a kind of anthology of leading Independents, published under the title The Lawfulness of Hearing the Public Ministers of the Church of England, Owen is cited to demonstrate that not only is hearing the word preached in the Church of England acceptable; there is nothing wrong with hearing the Book of Common Prayer liturgy either. It is argued that Owen condemns composing forms of prayer for private use, but not the use of forms per se or that churches may collectively agree on prescribed forms by common consent. Further, liturgical forms are not intrinsically evil, according to Owen; God will accept them when they are sincere, even though they do not conform precisely to the word of God. Rather, Owen—as represented in this compendium—is setting up a better-and-best continuum.46 But a review of the references to Owen’s The Work of the Holy Spirit in Prayer reveals that this is not what Owen is communicating at all. Rather, Owen is responding to a very specific argument—namely, that believers who can pray on their own would benefit from occasionally using prescribed forms. He is not speaking to the lawfulness of prescription in corporate worship. Owen does leave room for real communion with God through liturgical forms in cases where the heart is prepared and motives are appropriate and where they are performed in ignorance. But he is not setting up a better-and-best dichotomy. He strongly denounces set forms as essentially obstructive to true prayer and worship and therefore unlawful.47 Despite this fact, Thomas Pittis includes a quotation from Owen’s The Work of the Holy Spirit in Prayer on the title page of his A Discourse of Prayer: Wherein This Great Duty Is Stated, so as to Oppose Some Principles and Practices of Papists and Fanatics. Even though Pittis argues that those who separate “under the pretense of greater Reformation, and a more pure, and Evangelical, Worship, do not pay homage, in their prayers, to the great God, in such a manner as is suitable to his Attributes, man’s dependence, and that infinite distance betwixt their Creator, and themselves”;48 even though he sees the end of extemporary prayer as rash and irreverent and at times nonsensical or worse;49 nonetheless, he still wants to take advantage of Owen’s influence for his own ends.50 On the subject of liturgical forms, Owen was leveraged by friends and enemies, and by both those inside and outside the established church.

Also in his preface to The Work of the Holy Spirit in Prayer, Owen takes aim at mental prayer, contemplation that does not engage the mind but rather empties it. He recalls that it was Hugh Cressy’s (1605–1674) The Church-History of Brittany and its disparagement of what Owen considered the biblical position on the subject of prayer that served as the impetus for Owen’s treatise to begin with. Cressy received his initial education at Oxford before serving as chaplain to Viscount Falkland. This post put him at the center of the Great Tew Circle for a number of years. He later boasted that he had been the one who initially introduced Socinian works to England.51 Cressy converted to the Church of Rome when he became convinced that if the Bible alone was authoritatively to be judged by reason, then the Socinians were right. He did not want to concede orthodoxy, so he converted in 1646 and continued his education in Paris at the Sorbonne. When he took Benedictine orders, he spent seven years at a monastery in Douai, later becoming chaplain to Charles II’s wife. Cressy demonstrated his great learning in his ecclesiastical history of England, in which he leveraged manuscript evidence to demonstrate that the history of the English Church was thoroughly and consistently Roman.52 One element of this was the practice of contemplative prayer, the discussion of which certainly includes some harsh words aimed at the Protestant alternative. Cressy says,

The most perfect manner of prayer in esteem with them is such a tedious, loud, impetuous, and uncivil conversation with God, as they see practiced by their preachers, which is no better than a mere artificial sleight and facility easily obtained by custom and a quick imagination, and may be in perfection practiced by persons full of inordinate, sensual, revengeful, and immortified passions.53

This public dismissal from a prominent and learned Roman Catholic instigated Owen’s public reply.

Revolutionary Sectarians

The middle decades of the seventeenth century were indeed decades of religious war in England. King and bishop tried to make the Church of England less Reformed and more ritualistic. Thus, when monarchy and episcopacy called for taxes to be raised and the prayer book to be imposed on Scotland, Parliament united against them. In this context, censorship broke down, the army became a political actor, and the ever-changing government became more tolerant than ever before; and so the sectarians abounded. However, the temptation to see these sects or movements as discrete, easily identifiable bodies must be avoided. They were groups of people clustered around certain sets of ideas, but without a centralized structure or formal membership. Moreover, fluidity and overlap abounded; it was not unusual for people to move from identification with one sect to another. The sectarians tended to share a common yet broad concern: the rejection of the established church maintained by compulsory tithes and a desire for toleration and freedom of conscience. They pushed things beyond what even the Interregnum government allowed and challenged accepted wisdom and practice. While most appeared and vanished within these few decades, together they comprised an important element of Owen’s historical landscape. For that reason, the most important sects will be briefly described in turn.

Baptists

The seventeenth-century English Baptists were characterized by nonliturgical worship, with an emphasis on preaching and believer’s baptism. They were attacked with the label of Anabaptist, a stereotype that conjured particular fear and loathing in their context, but it was an illegitimate designation. The Baptists were the inheritors of the Puritan-become-Separatist movement associated with Robert Browne (ca. 1550–1633), taking the implications of the regulative principle of worship to their logical conclusions—namely, application to ecclesiology and the ordinances. By midcentury, two distinct groups were apparent: the Particular Baptists, stemming from independent London congregations associated with Henry Jacob (1563–1624), on the one hand, and the General Baptists, with roots in the Amsterdam church led by John Smyth (ca. 1570–1612) and Thomas Helwys (ca. 1550–ca. 1616), on the other. The former got their name from their traditional Protestant soteriology, the latter from their Arminian sympathies. However, they agreed that believer’s baptism was the entry into church membership. And while immersion was attacked with satire by their religious opponents, the real threat posed by Baptists was the breaking up of social cohesion caused by their independence. Rejection of the church equaled rejection of the state. The Particular Baptists especially worked hard to affirm submission in matters not of conscience and separate themselves from political radicals, while General Baptists showed some overt support for the Levellers. Both welcomed Cromwell’s government but were disillusioned like so many others when it failed to fully deliver the desired reforms. This disenchantment led some to join the Fifth Monarchy Men. With Restoration imminent, Baptists committed to live peaceably with whatever government would be established but remained stalwart against compulsory religion. The Baptists had served as a breeding ground for radical sects during the century’s middle decades and later consolidated to become an established and at times respected dissenting denomination.54

Levellers

The core of the Leveller platform was individual liberty and rights, but leaders did not necessarily share the same starting point; nor did they agree how their theoretical positions should be applied. For instance, Richard Overton (fl. 1640–1663) wrote An Arrow against All Tyrants and Tyrany (1646) developing an argument for political rights based on natural law, while John Lilburne (ca. 1614–1657) came to similar conclusions based on the Bible in London’s Liberty in Chains (1646). The movement lasted only six years, beginning with the publication A Remonstrance of Many Thousand Citizens in July 1646. The philosophy was basically this: God created people equal, and no one therefore had a God-given right to rule or govern over another. Government exists by consent of the governed. Ultimate sovereignty resided in the people, and thus government could act only by the will of the people. The aim was to purge undemocratic elements from the government—especially the House of Lords—and make the House of Commons truly democratic in practice. Even with a representative government, though, Levellers advocated for freedom of conscience, equitable justice, and the right of property. The Leveller movement’s primary concern was practical, not theological, meaning the short-lived coalition included various religious persuasions.55

Diggers

On the fringe of the Leveller movement were the “True Levellers” or Diggers. No tension between democracy and the maintenance of property rights existed in the Digger mind. The poor needed economic, not just political, freedom and this would be accomplished by the communal ownership of land. And this was not merely an appeal or theory. The group cultivated and planted land not their own, hoping to incite the process of making the earth a “common treasury.” The first reports of the Diggers appear in 1649 after Gerrard Winstanley (1609–1676) received direction in a trance to help usher in the kingdom of God, a kingdom which included no buying or selling, nor categories of ownership such as “mine” and “yours.” He set up a community, which quickly drew attention and was officially harassed, with the hope that the vision would spread. Other communities were also established. Digger ideology was radical and its theology unorthodox. The earth, in Winstanley’s teaching, was originally created for all to share equally. He does not use the category of the fall to explain the problem of humanity, but rather the biblical narrative of the strong, rich, and powerful struggling against the weak, poor, and powerless. Adam rises up in every man to take what is not his, and the second Adam, Christ, overcomes this impulse. Redemption is corporate, a communal event that includes the spurning of buying and selling. Because self-interest is not innate but rather caused by the system of buying and selling, if the latter is eradicated, a prelapsarian state is possible. Christ is not distinct from the saints, in Winstanley’s mind, and the second coming is his welling up in his followers, not a personal return. The resurrection can be similarly explained. Christ is still buried, waiting to rise up in believers. The Diggers clearly rejected the theological system of the established church and anything that could be described as orthodox Christian religion wholesale. The main community was violently broken up, and the movement sputtered out, its adherents being absorbed into the ranks of various other sects. Winstanley himself became a Quaker.56

Ranters

Even more extreme in the eyes of the establishment were the Ranters. They primarily rose out of Baptist and Seeker ranks, and while there were no real leaders, no formal membership, and hardly an identifiable movement at all, there were Ranters.57Men like Abiezer Coppe (1619–1672), Joseph Salmon (fl. 1647–1656), and Jacob Bauthumley (1613–1692) drew attention with their crass antinomianism. The Ranter creed was that there is no sin, because if God indwelt a person it was impossible to sin and ergo the law was irrelevant. This article of faith flowed from strong mystical and pantheistic convictions. God in all things made everything and anything good. What made the Ranters radical was not so much this theology as their obvious readiness to act on it and take it to the extreme. Sexual immorality, drunkenness, sacrilege, and blasphemy abounded. Ranterism was short-lived, with an active period from 1649 to 1651, at the end of which an act was passed to put an end to the socially threatening behavior and ideas. Such people were not going to endure persecution or have any qualms about the path of least resistance. They strove to shock with their license. And shock they did.58

Fifth Monarchists

The Fifth Monarchy Men combined organization with a political agenda. They were millenarians, and they were committed to actively bringing the millennial reign about at any cost. They looked eagerly for the second coming of Christ, which would usher in his thousand-year reign of peace on Earth. Indeed, his return was their raison d’être. The execution of Charles and its aftermath were unmistakable signs and the fulfillment of prophecy. Fifth Monarchists placed Daniel 2, God’s establishing a fifth and eternal kingdom, alongside Revelation 20, the picture of the millennium. The resulting progression went like this: Assyria, Babylon, Greece, Rome—which was extinguished with the Roman Catholic sympathizer Charles—then king Jesus, the fifth monarch. The movement was solidified when hopes of ushering in the kingdom were dashed in 1651 by the Rump Parliament and then in 1653 by Cromwell himself and his Barebones Parliament. Christopher Feake (1612–1683) and Henry Jessey (1603–1663) were leaders who emerged during these early days. The group denounced Cromwell, but they largely agreed that they would need a clear sign before using force against him. Some claimed to receive messages from God in dreams and visions. The year 1657 saw the infamous attempt at uprising by Thomas Venner. This and other efforts were thwarted as Cromwell took great interest in the development of the movement and went to great lengths to keep it suppressed, especially in the ranks of his army. The Restoration was, of course, functionally the end of the Fifth Monarchists, and by century’s end they were no more.59

Muggletonians

Lastly, the Muggletonians emerged in 1652 with the cousins Lodowicke Muggleton (1609–1698) and John Reeve (1608–1658). Reeve received a special communication from God that the pair were the two last witnesses from the book of Revelation, comparing himself to Moses and Muggleton to Aaron. Reeve wrote the apology for the movement the same year, A Transcendent Spiritual Treatise, arguing that his revelation was superior from that claimed by other sects, because his came from outside himself. God spoke to him audibly. Reeve may have been the genius behind the movement, but it assumed Muggleton’s name as he singlehandedly led the group for forty years. The Muggletonians thought they were living in the last days, but they were no millenarians. They expected the second coming of Christ to usher the last judgement in immediately. They were dispensationalists with a Trinitarian view of history; the age of the Spirit had begun with the divine revelation to Reeve. They were predestinarians, which separated them from most other sects with whom they shared an emphasis on the Spirit over the words of Scripture. What gave them appeal was the power of the two witnesses to know whether an individual was numbered among the elect or not. With the witnesses, it became possible to have not only salvation but also assurance. Blessing and cursing based on this special insight became a distinctive of Muggletonian ministry. However, the group remained small, as adherents did not initiate conversations about their message. In their view, someone they encountered might be saved, but if they heard the message of the two witnesses and rejected it, they would certainly be damned. They were unitarians, understanding God to have a spiritual, and yet circumscribed body. So the Father became a physical, mortal human—Jesus—for a time, before taking on immortality again. After this, with the exception of the revelation to Reeve, God was disinterested in his people. He took no notice of prayers and was unmoved by suffering, to such an extent that nothing was gained from martyrdom or self-denial. The result of these beliefs was an informal piety. No prayer, no proselytizing, no ministers, no regular services. Just gatherings, often in taverns or alehouses, where leaders surfaced, and discussions were had. The Muggletonians were political quietists small in number and, as such, existed as a kind of unnoticed society after the Restoration into the twentieth century.60

Owen witnessed firsthand the rise of these religious sects in the 1640s and 1650s, and in some cases was very much aware of their continuance later into the seventeenth century. This sectarian milieu resulted, he thought, from failures on two fronts: the doctrine of Scripture and the doctrine of the church. Owen’s Causes, Ways, and Means (1678) establishes a legitimate method of biblical interpretation, one that does not leave the meaning of Scripture open-ended. Further, the Spirit never contradicts the word, so whether it is Digger redefinition of sin or Ranter antinomianism, any teaching contrary to Scripture is categorically false, regardless of where it is claimed to have originated. Even more pointedly, the Spirit does not work apart from the word, so claims to special revelations, whether Fifth Monarchist or Muggletonian, are simply not true. Like all extraordinary spiritual gifts, prophecy and all the other extrabiblical revelation—“enthusiasm,” as it was called in the seventeenth century—ended with the extraordinary offices of New Testament prophets and apostles. Enthusiasm was a threat that was given life by many of these sects, and it not only undermined Owen’s conception of the authority and function of Scripture but also devalued the ordinary spiritual gifts and offices through which Christ provides for his church, as Owen outlines in A Discourse of Spiritual Gifts (1693). Owen shared many of the sectarian concerns; however, he believed that Scripture and the ordinary means of grace given by God to his church provided the answers and resources necessary for response to the legitimate apprehensions. The Muggletonian emphasis on assurance, for example, Owen shared. But rather than revising orthodox Christianity, he penned a biblical treatise on the certainty of salvation in The Holy Spirit as a Comforter