The Road to Vindaloo E-Book

David Burnett

• Herausgeber: Marion Boyars
• Kategorie: Lebensstil
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2009

Beschreibung

A book tracing the development of Anglo-Indian cookery, in other words the curry, in English and Scottish cookery books from its earliest appearance in the 18th century through to modern works by Camilla Punjabi and Marguerite Patten. It wanders the lanes and byways of the British occupation of India, unearthing delightful accounts of Imperial eating and explaining how we have grown accustomed to the spice-box of the Raj. The broad intention is to reproduce early recipes for curry and accounts of Anglo-Indian food in their original words. The majority come from printed books, but some are drawn from manuscripts. The narrative traces our enjoyment of Oriental flavours from the 17th century through to the first appearance of a recipe for curry in Hannah Glasse in 1747.

Leseprobe

‘Curry renders the stomach active in Digestion – the Blood naturally free in circulation, the mind vigorous, and contributes most of any food to the increase of the human race.’

(London) Morning Herald, 1784

First published in 2008 by Prospect Books, Allaleigh House, Blackawton, Totnes, Devon TQ9 7DL.

© 2008, David Burnett and Helen Saberi.

The authors assert their right to be identified as the authors in accordance with the Copyright, Designs & Patents Act 1988.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data: A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright holder.

ISBN 978-1-903018-57-6 ePub ISBN: 978-1-909248-12-0 PRC ISBN: 978-1-909248-13-7

Typeset by Tom Jaine.

Printed and bound in Great Britain at the Cromwell Press, Trowbridge, Wiltshire.

CONTENTS

Preface, Acknowledgements and aSort of Introduction

About this Book and the Recipes

CHAPTER ONE Old Spice

CHAPTER TWO Some Like it Hot

CHAPTER THREE Curry for Private Families

CHAPTER FOUR Club Cooks

CHAPTER FIVE Officers’ Mess

CHAPTER SIX Some Intrepid Ladies

CHAPTER SEVEN Refined Tastes

CHAPTER EIGHT Royal Approval

CHAPTER NINE Changing Tastes

CHAPTER TEN Modern Times

Glossary of Curry Terms and Accompaniments

Glossary of Curry Ingredients

Weights and Measures

Bibliography

Index

PREFACE, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND A SORT OF INTRODUCTION

The British came here and stayed for 200 years. What was their most significant legacy?

Railways? The Civil Service? Democracy? Surely it was Cricket!

And what of most importance did they take from us? Yoga? Mascara? Ashrams?

Surely it was Curry!

Danesh Carvallo

More than a dozen years have passed since I read the manuscript of David Burton’s culinary history, The Raj at Table. The author had submitted it to the then independent publishing firm Victor Gollancz, where I worked. I liked the script very much and made Mr Burton an offer to publish which he rejected in favour of a better one from Faber, who published the book with some success. The chagrin from this disappointment eventually passed, as far as I was concerned, but the interest kindled by Mr Burton’s book stayed with me.

Part of this interest came from my own experience of India. I had stayed in old resthouses of the Raj years and found sad relics in the gravestones of young men far from home and the decaying mansions of British administrators, abandoned and daubed with crude graffiti. (In a leafy residential part of Bangalore an old white wall round a crumbling colonial house bore the words, painted in thick black letters, NOT TO URINAT HERE. In the former British officers’ club in the same city, a notice glued above a leather armchair in the library smoking room announced, SMALL EATS ONLY. On the bookshelves, hundreds of dilapidated novels by authors like Dornford Yates were inexorably turning to powder.) To a person of my generation, born before World War II and taught at schools where maps of the world on classroom walls showed large land-masses coloured imperial pink (ours), such glimpses of a lost regime in India were both uncomfortable and fascinating. I found particular interest in the publishing and bookselling companies of the Raj years, firms such as Thacker & Spink, and Higginbotham, in Bombay and Madras, who published guides of all kinds for British readers. It was to these firms that the authors of local cookery books brought their works.

Enthused by Mr Burton and my experiences on the sub-continent, I started to look for old cookbooks on the shelves of bookish friends and in the catalogues of specialist booksellers. I started to buy them, too, which was very expensive. I took a reader’s ticket to the British Library, where the India Office collection is now held. There, I followed up on some of the authors, previously unknown to me, from whose pages David Burton had quoted: Colonel Kenney-Herbert, Henrietta Hervey, Flora Annie Steel, and others. In the library of the Wellcome Institute I discovered Mrs Turnbull and Captain White, pioneer entrepreneur of the curry paste. In Edinburgh’s City Library I perused the 200 year-old manuscript of Stephana Malcolm. I knew about Eliza Acton, having in my early days reprinted her great book Modern Cookery of 1845. I reread her curry chapter, once more marvelling at her thoroughness and the clarity of her instructions. I went to India again and searched the library of a good friend, M.Y. Ghorpade, in the palace of Sandur. Here I found Colonel Hare and Mrs Dey and the 1950s cookbook of the American School at Kodaikanal with its careful instructions for cake-making at high altitude.

The finest private library of which I took advantage belonged to Judy Weston, whose generosity was matched by her expert knowledge of the literature of the Raj. At first I searched out of curiosity and a natural tendency to wander down blind alleys; I had no idea of attempting to make a book, indeed I was sufficiently aware of my inability to tackle a serious project not to proceed in more than a dilettante sort of way, buying the odd book here, boring the odd friend there, cooking the occasional istoric curry dish. Yet gradually a folder began to ?ll with bits and pieces. Something was taking shape, or it should have been, if I had been able to impose a structure upon it. I could not. I was floundering, bogged down in details, unable to see the wood for the trees, and so on. Then I met Helen.

After the publication of her book Afghan Food and Cooking in 1986, Helen worked for 15 years with Alan Davidson, including assisting him in the immense task of compiling the Oxford Companion to Food. Together, they also produced a small classic on the history of trifle. After Alan’s death I was lucky enough to inveigle Helen into the stalled and struggling curry project and she has helped me turn it into a finished article. Without her, the book would never have seen the light.

I am particularly grateful to Tessa McKirdy of Cooks Books, who provided some crucial works from her store, and much expert knowledge. In Edinburgh, Olive Geddes guided me through the papers of Stephana Malcolm. We are also indebted to Bee Wilson for kindly reading through the manuscript and making many helpful suggestions. Warm thanks also go to Hilary Hyman who helped us in many ways: scouring the charity shops for little-known books and valiantly testing a number of recipes. Other friends and family have also helped us both with suggestions and tasting recipes and we thank Nasir Saberi, Alex Saberi, Oliver Saberi, Colleen Taylor Sen, Philip and Mary Hyman, Jane Davidson and Jean Miller. We also express our gratitude to all the other authors who have given permission for us to use information or recipes: Jennifer Brennan, Pat Chapman, Sir Gulam Noon, Camellia Panjabi, Marguerite Patten and Charles Perry.

Finally thanks and gratitude go to our publisher Tom Jaine for publishing this book and producing such a handsome edition.

David Burnett

ABOUT THIS BOOK AND THE RECIPES

What this little book aims to do is trace the history of the British curry by way of cooks and books from medieval times to colonial India and to Britain from the eighteenth to the twenty-first centuries. We aim to show the evolution of curry from a medieval spiced stew to its modern interpretation.

Many of the recipes have been tested but at the same time most of the old ones, given verbatim, come from the original source. We felt that readers would prefer to see for themselves what, say, an author of the eighteenth, nineteenth or twentieth century wrote without the substitutions which would be the almost inevitable results of testing. Given the huge number of curry recipes in cookery books over the last 250 years or so, making a selection became a matter of personal taste. We have given a broad choice: those of interest, of importance historically, and those we thought were just too good to miss.

At the end of the book we supply notes on weights and measures plus what we hope will be illuminating and informative glossaries of curry terms, accompaniments and ingredients.

CURRY

Curry denotes a stew of meat, fish, vegetables, etc., cooked in a sauce of ‘hot’ spices and usually served with rice. The ‘hot’ spices are ground together to make spice mixture called curry powder. The word curry may derive from the Tamil kari which means a sauce served with rice.

There are many spicy dishes in Indian cuisine called a variety of names such as korma, do piaza, vindaloo, rogan josh, jal frezi, pasanda, and so forth.

In their Anglo-Indian dictionary Hobson-Jobson (1886), Henry Yule and A.C. Burnell give the fullest account of the term’s history up to the beginning of the twentieth century:

Curry, s. In the East the staple food consists of some cereal, either (as in N. India) in the form of flour baked into unleavened cakes, or boiled in the grain, as rice is. Such food having little taste, some small quantity of a much more savoury preparation is added as a relish, or ‘kitchen’ to use the phrase of our forefathers. And this is in fact the proper office of curry in native diet. It consists of meat, fish, fruit, or vegetables, cooked with a quantity of bruised spices and turmeric; and a little of this gives a flavour to a large mess of rice. … In England the proportions of rice and ‘kitchen’ are usually reversed, so that the latter is made to constitute the bulk of the dish. …

It is possible, however, that the kind of curry used by the Europeans and Mahommedans is not of purely Indian origin, but has come down from the spiced cookery of medieval Europe and Western Asia. The medieval spiced dishes in question were even coloured like curry. Turmeric, indeed, called by Garcia de Orta, Indian saffron, was yet unknown in Europe, but it was represented by saffron and sandalwood. …

Moreover, there is hardly room for doubt that capsicum or red pepper was introduced into India by the Portuguese … and this spice constitutes the most important ingredient in modern curries. … A recipe for curry (caril) is given, according to Bluteau, in the Portuguese Arte de Cozinha, p. 101. This must be of the 17th century. {The date in fact was 1683.}

Other explanations have been offered as to the root of the term, which, since there is no dissent about what curry actually is, we do not propose to discuss.

One of the earliest mentions of curry in English occurs in a translation (1598) of the Dutch traveller John Huyghen van Linschoten’s account of voyages in the E. and W. Indies. ‘Most of their fish is eaten with rice, and is somewhat sour but it tasteth well and is called Carriel, which is their daily meat.’

Another traveller, Pietro della Valle also describes caril in a letter from Mangalor, Dec 9th, 1623:

The King very earnestly pray’d me to eat, excusing himself often that he gave me so small an entertainment on the sudden; for if he had known my coming beforehand he would have prepar’d many Carils and divers other more pleasing meats.

Caril is a name which in India they give to certain Broths made with butter, the Pulp of Indian Nuts, (instead of which in our Countries Almond Milk may be us’d, being equally good and of the same virtue) and all sorts of Spices, particularly Cardamoms and Ginger (which we use but little) besides herbs, fruits and a thousand other condiments. The Christians, who eat everything, add Flesh, or Fish, of all sorts, especially Hens, or Chickens, cut in small pieces, sometimes Eggs, which, without doubt, make it more savory: with all which things is made a kind of Broth, like our Guazetti, or Pottages, and it may be made in several ways; this Broth, with all the abovesaid ingredients, is afterwards poured in good quantity upon the boyled Rice, whereby is made a well-tasted mixture, of much substance and light digestion, as also with very little pains; for it is quickly boyled, and serves both for meat and bread together. I found it very good for me, and used it often.’

The Travels of Pietro della Valle in India, 1664.

Curry in the second millennium is the most popular restaurant meal in Britain, served in over 8,000 curry and Balti restaurants and take-aways. In supermarkets and convenience stores across the nation the ready-cooked curry sells in huge numbers; one outstanding local supplier among several, Sir Gulam Noon, whose family once owned a small shop in Bombay, now produces millions of curries for British supermarket customers, selling hundreds of thousands of the more popular types, such as Chicken Tikka Masala and Lamb Korma every month. Noon and his competitors have set up their operations on a big scale, building state-of-the-art factories across the country to manufacture and package curries. There is no sign of demand slackening.

How on earth did this happen? Where did this tremendous British desire for a spiced dish from the East originate and how did curry become so much a part of our everyday lives? To look into these questions calls for some mention of the spice trade, that immense exchange which bound together the merchants of East and West from time immemorial.

The Italian translation of the great work of the Portuguese botanist and doctor Christoval Acosta (1515–1580). His illustrations of oriental spice plants were some of the first in Europe.

An illustration of the tamarind, from the treatise by Christoval Acosta. He was born in the Portuguese colony of Mozambique and spent much time in Goa exploring for spice and medicinal plants.

CHAPTER ONE

OLD SPICE

The use of culinary spices is as old as the cooking pot. Archaeology provides glimpses into the kitchens of our ancestors to show that familiar seeds, such as coriander, have been used to flavour food and drinks for thousands of years. Spices and herbs were much in demand throughout northern Europe in old times and their widespread use in food and medicine was probably encouraged by the invading Romans who liked cloves and other spices, lavender under their pillows, central heating and hot baths and taught the rude inhabitants of conquered territories how to enjoy these and other treats. For many centuries commerce in commodities like pepper, cinnamon, ginger and nutmeg brought prosperity to the port of Venice, situated at the watery fulcrum between East and West. From here the precious cargoes were transported across Europe to northern markets.

The really valuable spices such as pepper, cinnamon, cloves, mace and nutmeg all came from the distant East and in order to reach the markets of Europe had to be carried long distances overland. This trade was immensely valuable and important for centuries. In early medieval Europe the use of spices in cooking was comparatively crude, but in the Arab world an extremely sophisticated cuisine existed by the eleventh century. To give just one example of an Eastern spiced meat dish from long ago, here is a recipe originally from Persia, preserved in an Arabic manuscript dating from the twelfth century. The translation is by Charles Perry, from his new version of A Baghdad Cookery Book published in 2005.

JURJANIYA

{i.e. from GorGan, a city on the caspian sea.}

The way to make it is to cut up meat medium and leave it in the pot, and put water to cover it with a little salt. Cut onions into dainty pieces, and when the pot boils, put the onions on it, and dry coriander, pepper, ginger and cinnamon, all pounded fine. If you want, add peeled carrots from which the woody interior has been removed, chopped medium. Then stir it until the ingredients are done. When it is done, take seeds of {sour} pomegranates and black raisins in equal proportion and pound them fine, {macerate} well in water, and strain through a fine sieve. Then throw them in the pot. Let there be a little bit of vinegar with it. Beat peeled sweet almonds, pounded fine to a liquid consistency with water, then throw them in the pot. When it boils and is nearly done, sweeten it with a little sugar, as much as needed. {That is, enough to make it pleasant}. Throw {a handful of} jujubes on top of the pot and sprinkle a little rose-water on it. Then cover it until it grows quiet on the fire, and take it up.

Fragrant dishes such as this would have been taken to India by the Moghal invaders and passed from the grand kitchens of Aurangzeb and Shah Jehan into widespread use in Moslem cooking across the subcontinent (star cooks rarely stay in one place for long and the cooks of the Moghal Emperors were probably just as inclined to roam as their modern counterparts, taking their skill and their secrets with them).

In England spiced food was growing in popularity long before the British arrived in India. In the fourteenth century at the court of Richard II, sophisticated tastes and fashion in food and drink (as well as other material things) became important socially. A compilation of recipes in English from this time, apparently by the ‘chief Master Cooks of King Richard II’, gives recipes using all sorts of eastern spices.

Following the establishment of direct sea routes to India by the Portuguese in the late fifteenth century, the Venice trade declined as cargo vessels braved the wider sea lanes round the Cape of Good Hope, sailing direct to eastern ports to obtain supplies from source. French, Dutch and English merchant ships competed for and fought over this lucrative trade for years. Eventually, enterprise and the desire to corner profitable markets combined in the setting up of fortified trading posts on distant shores. The English East India Company, foremost among these energetic traders, constructed and fortified harbours at Bombay, Madras and Calcutta and created the trading and command structure in India which eventually resulted in British colonization of the entire subcontinent.

By the end of the sixteenth century, London had a mature market in Oriental spices and it kept on growing. John Gerard’s great Herbal of 1597 (revised 1633) describes now familiar culinary spices such as turmeric, ginger, coriander and hot peppers. After him, Nicolas Culpeper, who announced himself as a ‘Herbalist: Spitalfields next to the Red Lion’, proclaimed the amazing healing powers of herbs and spices. Some idea of the significance of herbs and spices in everyday life of the period can be understood from the enormous demand for Gerard’s and Culpeper’s books. These were not recipe books for cooks but nonetheless show how the use of herbs and spices could overlap into cookery (electuaries were a medicine of powder mixed into a paste with syrup or honey):

That you may make electuaries when you need them, it is requisite that you keep always herbs, roots, flowers, seeds &c ready dried in your house, so that you may be in a readiness to beat them into powder when you need them. It is better to keep them whole than beaten; for being beaten, they are more subject to lose their strength; because the air soon penetrates them.

Nicholas Culpeper, 1653

JOHN GERARD

Of Turmeric

This root is certainly hot in the third degree, and hath a qualitie to open obstructions …

Of Ginger

Ginger groweth in Spaine, Barbary, in the Canary Islands, and the Azores. Our men which sacked Domingo in the Indies, digged it up there in sundry places wilde.

Ginger is right good with meat sauces, or otherwise in conditures: for it is of an heating and digesting quality.

The Onion

The Onion being eaten, yea though it be boyled, causeth headache, hurteth the eyes, and makes a man dimme sighted, dulleth the senses, ingendreth windiness, and provoketh overmuch sleepe, especially being eaten raw.

Of Garlic

If it be boyled in water until such time as it hath lost his sharpnesse, it is the less forcible …

Of Mustard

The seed of Mustard pound with vingar, is an excellent sauce, good to be eaten with any grosse meates either fish or flesh, because it doth helpe digestion, warmeth the stomacke, and provoketh appetite.

Of Rice

In England we use to make with milke and rice a certaine food or pottage which doth both meanly binde the belly, and also nourish. Many other good kindes of food is made with this graine, as those that are skilfull in cookerie can tell.

Gerard, 1633

In Culpeper’s great work, he goes on to define many of the spices that would later be essential constituents of the curry powders described by the cookery writers of the eighteenth century.

Coriander seed, hot and dry, expels wind, but is hurtful to the head; sends up unwholesome vapours to the brain, dangerous for mad people.

Fenugreek seeds are of a softening, discussing nature, they cease inflammations, be they internal or external: bruised and mixed with vinegar they ease the pains of the spleen; being applied to the sides, help hardness and swellings of the matrix, being boiled, the decoction helps scabby heads.

Cardamoms heat, kill worms, cleanse the reins {kidneys}, and provoke urine.

Cummin seeds heat, bind, and dry, stop blood, expel wind, ease pain, help the bitings of venomous beasts: outwardly applied (viz. in Plaisters) they are of a discussing nature.

Mustard: A spoonful put into the mouth, is excellent for one that is troubled with the lethargy.

Nicholas Culpeper, 1653

By the end of the seventeenth century the flavoured, spicy stew was well established on English dining-tables. Robert May, one of the leading cooks of the period, gives a recipe which could be considered the beginnings of a British curry in the fifth edition of The Accomplish’t Cook (1685). It contains some ‘curry’ ingredients, including the use of sweet and sour flavours, with the addition of prunes, raisins and wine.

STEWED BROTH NEW FASHION

Take two Joints of Mutton, Rack and Loin, being half boiled and scummed, take up the Mutton, and wash away the dregs from it, strain the broth, and blow away the fat, then put to the broth in a pipkin [small pot or pan] a bundle of sweet Herbs bound up hard, and some Mace, and boil in it also a pound of Raisins of the Sun being strained, a pound of Prunes whole, with Cloves, Pepper, Saffron, Salt, Claret, and Sugar: stew all well together, a little before you dish out your broth, put in your meat again, give it a warm {a simmer}, and serve it on fine carved sippits {a piece of toast or fried bread as a garnish}.

RICHARD BRADLEY

Spices were considered essential as food flavourings and it would have been inconvenient to do without them even on holiday. The list of supplies below comes from The Country Housewife and Lady’s Directory by Richard Bradley, Professor of Botany at Cambridge University, published in 1733:

Things to be provided, when any great family is going into the Country, for a Summer. From Mr. R. S.

Nutmegs – Mace – Cinnamon – Cloves – Pepper – Ginger – Jamaica Pepper.

When the British arrived in India at the end of the seventeenth century they were pleased to discover that there was plenty of spiced food available and it was even spicier than they were used to back home. The enterprising Portuguese arrived before them and had brought the chilli pepper from the West Indies and introduced it to their dominions centred on Goa.

THE CHILLI PEPPER

Chillies are members of the Capsicum genus, mainly Capsicum annuum and C. frutescens. There are today numerous cultivars and they come in all sorts of shapes, sizes, colours and degree of ‘hotness’. They range from tiny birds-eye chillies which are extremely ‘hot’ to the larger fleshy peppers with much milder flavours.

Although chillies are now a major component of curries and curry powders, providing the ‘heat’, there is no mention of the chilli in Indian literature before the sixteenth century. Achaya in his Historical Dictionary of Indian Food (1998) tells us that Garcia da Orta, the Portuguese doctor-botanist, does not record it and only black pepper or long pepper were used to achieve pungency. He goes on, ‘The chilli must have entered India soon after the voyages of Columbus and Vasco da Gama.… All forms of the chilli, which had been fully developed in the New World, eventually found their way into India.’

Capsaicin gives chillies their kick. To reduce heat in dishes one can remove the seeds. Another tip to ‘balance’ the heat is to add a little sugar or something sweet such as fruit to the dish. If you have inadvertently taken in too much chilli, eat something sweet. Drinking does not help and can even make the burning worse. Also, when handling chillies wash your hands well and avoid touching your eyes or any sensitive areas or cuts.

Cayenne, which is often in the list of ingredients for curry recipes, is a red, long and thin pepper and is a cultivar of C. annuum. It is named for Cayenne in French Guiana, where it probably originated. It is dried and ground – or pulped, baked into cakes, then ground – and is pungent and very hot.

This fiery fruit having gained a toehold in Portuguese India now spread into British territories. The chilli-based ‘hot’ curry appealed strongly to the English palate and soon those who had become accustomed to it brought back spices from India and showed how English cooks might make curry powder. The curry had arrived and English people who had never set foot in India were enjoying it. Now a prophet was needed to spread the word. In 1747, more than 150 years after the English built their first tiny trading base at Surat on India’s north-west coast, Hannah Glasse described in the first published curry recipe in English how ‘To make a Currey the India way.’

To make a Currey the India way.

TAKE two Fowls or Rabbits, cut them into Small Pieces, and three or four Small Onions, peeled and cut very Small, thirty Pepper Corns, and a large Spoonful of Rice, Brown fome Coriander Seeds over the Fire in a clear Shovel, and beat them to Powder, take a Tea Spoonful of Salt, and mix all well together with the Meat, put all together into a Sauce-pan or Stew-pan, with a Pint of Water, let it flew softly till the Meat is enough, then put in a Piece of fresh Butter, about as big as a large Walnut, shake it well together, and when it is Smooth and of a fine Thickcnets, dish it up, and send it to Table ; if the Sauce be too thick, add a little more Water before it done, and more Salt if it wants it.You are to observe the Sauce must be pretty thick,

Hannah Glasse’s receipt, from the first edition of her book, 1747.

CHAPTER TWO

SOME LIKE IT HOT HANNAH GLASSE AND THE FIRST BRITISH CURRY

HANNAH GLASSE

Hannah Glasse was the daughter of Isaac Allgood of Hexham in Northumberland and an Irish widow, Mrs Hannah Reynolds. At the age of sixteen she secretly married, much to her family’s distress, John Glasse, who was considered by them not only to be feckless and penniless but an adventurer and a liar who had been married before. Altogether she bore him eleven children, although not all survived, and it was during some of her child-bearing years, that Hannah wrote her famous book, The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy.

She was the first author to include curry in a British cookery book. This was published in 1747, and included not only the curry but also three pellows (pilaus), and an Indian pickle.

TO MAKE A CURREY THE INDIA WAY.

Take two Fowls or Rabbits, cut them into small Pieces, and three or four small Onions, peeled and cut very small, thirty Pepper Corns, and a large Spoonful of Rice, Brown some Coriander Seeds over the Fire in a clear Shovel, and beat them to Powder, take a Tea Spoonful of Salt, and mix well together with the Meat, put all together into a Sauce-pan or Stew-pan, with a Pint of Water, let it stew softly till the Meat is enough, then put in a Piece of fresh Butter, about as big as a large Walnut, shake it well together, and when it is smooth and of a fine Thickness, dish it up, and send it to Table; if the Sauce be too thick, add a little more Water before it is done, and more Salt if it wants it. You are to observe the Sauce must be pretty thick.

Mrs Glasse’s recipe relies merely upon peppercorns and coriander to give it a curry flavour and would seem to fall well short of what we might expect. The dish which we tested (using two teaspoons of coriander as a guess, as the amount was not stated) was really a mildly spicy and aromatic stew and such stews had appeared in many cookery books before Hannah Glasse. However, by the end of the eighteenth century, when her book was in its umpteenth reprint, the ‘chicken curry’ had been heated up with the addition of curry powder and chilli.

The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy was one of the best selling cookery books of its time and although many of the recipes were taken from other people’s work (without acknowledgement), it was remarkable for many reasons, not least because it really did make cookery plainer and easier, and was addressed specifically to servants and woman cooks, not male chefs or ‘French boobies’.