Ultimate Guide to Furniture Refinishing & Repair, 2nd Revised Edition E-Book

Brian Hingley

• Herausgeber: Creative Homeowner
• Kategorie: Lebensstil
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021

Seitenzahl: 510

Beschreibung

Whether you've received a beloved family heirloom that needs fixing up or want to repair and renovate bargain furniture, this Ultimate Guide to Furniture Repair & Refinishing is packed with detailed information to help you get the job done right! With more than 500 color step-by-step instructions, photographs, and detailed drawings, this authoritative DIY guide will show you everything you need to know to restore furniture, including tips on the tools, materials, and supplies needed. From removing old finishes and refurbishing warped wood to making structural repairs and preserving original finishes on old collectible furniture, you'll learn a wide range of shop-tested and approved methods to furniture restoration. Written by an authority in the field and seasoned woodworker Bob Flexner, this book has been updated and redesigned from its previous edition so you can make the most out of damaged or antique furniture and achieve professional results.

Leseprobe

I dedicate this book to my parents, Albert Parker Hingley and Phyllis M. Hingley.

Special thanks to my wife, Audrey, for assistance with the manuscript and to my son, Robert, for illustration assistance. Also, thanks to the employees of Hingley Furniture Restoration, Inc., especially Bob Lane and Mary Bishop, whose dedication to our craft and clients helped me greatly in the completion of this book.

Brian D. HingleyRichmond, Virginia

Copyright © 2021, 1998 by Brian D. Hingley and Creative Homeowner

Ultimate Guide to Furniture Repair & Refinishing, 2nd Revised Edition is an original work, first published in 2021 by Creative Homeowner, and is a revised and updated edition of Furniture Repair & Refinishing, originally published in 1998 by Creative Homeowner, an imprint of Fox Chapel Publishing.

This book may not be reproduced, either in part or in its entirety, in any form, by any means, without written permission from the publisher, with the exception of brief excerpts for purposes of radio, television, or published review. All rights, including the right of translation, are reserved. Note: Be sure to familiarize yourself with manufacturer’s instructions for tools, equipment, and materials before beginning a project. Although all possible measures have been taken to ensure the accuracy of the material presented, neither the author nor the publisher is liable in case of misinterpretation of directions, misapplication, or typographical error.

Creative Homeowner® is a registered trademark of New Design Originals Corporation.

ULTIMATE GUIDE TO FURNITURE REPAIR & REFINISHING

ORIGINAL EDITION

Editorial Director: Timothy O. Bakke

Art Director: Annie Jeon

Copyeditor: Robin White Goode

Proofreader: Raymond Marchand

Technical Reviewer: R. S. Wilkinson

Graphic Designer: Michelle D. Halko

Illustrators: Rodney Stokes, Paul Schumm, Vincent Allessi

2ND REVISED EDITION

Technical Editor: Jeff Almich

Cover Photography: Freeze Frame Studio [TK check]

Inside Photos: H. Howard Hudgins, Jr., Richmond, VA, except as noted below

Additional Photos: p. 1: Steven Mays, New York, NY; p. 2: Marc Samu, Bayport, NY; pp. 12, 24, 40, 46, 66, 106, 122, 164, 174, 188, 196, 202, 210, 228 (bot.): Lance Patterson, North Bennet Street School, Boston, MA; pp. 50, 51, 54, 55, 56, 59: Jim Roberson [TK check all page refs]

Print ISBN 978-1-58011-843-9

eISBN 978-1-58011-843-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2021940915

We are always looking for talented authors. To submit an idea, please send a brief inquiry to [email protected].

Creative Homeowner®, www.creativehomeowner.com, is an imprint of New Design Originals Corporation and distributed exclusively in North America by Fox Chapel Publishing Company, Inc., 800-457-9112, 903 Square Street, Mount Joy, PA 17552, and in the United Kingdom by Grantham Book Service, Trent Road, Grantham, Lincolnshire, NG31 7XQ.

SAFETY FIRST

Though all the methods in this book have been tested for safety, it is not possible to overstate the importance of using the safest procedures possible. What follows are reminders—some do and don’ts of work safety. They are not substitutes for your own common sense.

■ Always use caution and good judgment when following the repair and refinishing procedures described in this book.

■ Always be sure that the electrical setup is safe; be sure that no circuit is overloaded and that all power tools and electrical outlets are properly grounded. Use GFCI-protected circuits whenever possible.

■ Always read container labels on paints, solvents, and other products; provide ventilation, and observe all other warnings.

■ Always read the tool maker’s instructions for using a tool.

■ Always use hold-downs and push sticks whenever possible when working on a table saw. Avoid working short pieces if you can.

■ Always remove the key from any drill chuck (portable or press) before starting the drill.

■ Always know the limitations of your tools. Do not try to force them to do what they were not designed to do.

■ Always make sure that any power-tool adjustment is locked before proceeding.

■ Always clamp small pieces firmly to a bench or other work surface when using a power tool on them.

■ Always wear the appropriate rubber or work gloves when handling chemicals.

■ Always wear a disposable face mask when you create dust by sawing or sanding. Use a special filtering respirator when working with toxic substances and solvents.

■ Always wear eye protection when using power tools or striking metal on metal.

■ Always be aware that there is seldom enough time for your body’s reflexes to save you from injury from a power tool in a dangerous situation; everything happens too fast. Be alert!

■ Always keep your hands away from the business ends of blades, cutters, and bits.

■ Always hold a circular saw firmly, usually with both hands so that you know where they are.

■ Never work with tools when you are tired or under the influence of alcohol or drugs.

■ Never cut very small pieces of wood or pipe using a power saw. Cut small pieces off larger pieces.

■ Never change a saw blade or a drill or router bit unless the power cord is unplugged.

■ Never work in insufficient lighting.

■ Never work while wearing loose clothing, hanging hair, open cuffs, or jewelry.

■ Never work with dull tools. Have them sharpened, or learn how to sharpen them yourself.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

PART I HOW TO BEGIN

CHAPTER 1 Getting Started

Furniture Examination

Wood Identification

CHAPTER 2 Tools and Equipment

The Work Space

Safety

Tools and Equipment

CHAPTER 3 Repair Materials

Mechanical Fasteners

Adhesives

Solid Wood and Veneers

CHAPTER 4 Refinishing Supplies and Materials

Materials for Removing Finishes

Sandpaper

Wood-Preparation Materials

Finishes

Finishing Touches

PART II FURNITURE REPAIRS

CHAPTER 5 Structural Repairs I: Loose Joints

Types of Joints

Loose Joints

Loose Joints in Chairs

Loose Joints in Tables

Pedestal-Style Tables

Frame-Style Tables

Loose Joints in Casegoods

Loose Joints in Drawers

Loose Joints on Beds

Loose Mirror and Picture-Frame Joints

CHAPTER 6 Structural Repairs II: Broken Joints

Broken Chair Joints

Mortise-and-Tenon and Dowel Joints

Bed Joints

CHAPTER 7 Other Repairs

Drawers

Splits and Fractures

Veneer Repair

Rocking-Chair Runners

Warped Wood Panels

Casters and Glides

PART III PRESERVING AN ORIGINAL FINISH

CHAPTER 8 Cleaning and Reviving Old Finishes

Is the Finish Original?

Cleaning an Original Finish

Waxing and Polishing

Reviving the Old Finish

CHAPTER 9 Repairing Minor Surface Damage

Water Rings, Stains, and Candle Wax

Nicks, Dents, and Scratches

Cigarette Burns and Gouges

Crushed Corners and Chewed Wood

PART IV REMOVING AN OLD FINISH & PREPARING WOOD

CHAPTER 10 Stripping and Bleaching Furniture

When to Strip the Finish

Stripping Methods

How to Remove a Finish

CHAPTER 11 Fixing Minor Wood Damage

Contaminants in Wood

Dents and Gouges

Sanding the Wood

CHAPTER 12 Filling Wood Grain and Staining

Open-Grain Woods

Staining Wood

PART V FINISHING FURNITURE

CHAPTER 13 Applying a Finish

Finish Basics

Wipe-on and Pad-on Finishes

Paint Finishes

Brushed and Sprayed Clear Finishes

CHAPTER 14 Finishing Touches

Final Sheen

Furniture Hardware

Rubbing to Various Sheens

And in Conclusion

GLOSSARY

INTRODUCTION

Furniture restoration has long been a popular pastime for do-it-yourself enthusiasts. During my years of working on furniture, I’ve discovered that people with all kinds of backgrounds, from students to homemakers to professional people, have either restored or tried to restore a piece of furniture.

There are myriad reasons for such wide appeal. The reason I hear most often is simply that furniture restoration is enjoyable. Retreating to the sanctuary of a home workshop to work on a furniture project provides not only satisfaction, but relaxation and stress relief. Often your efforts will bring immediate, rewarding results. There’s great personal satisfaction in taking a piece of furniture previously destined for the trash and transforming it into a useful, beautiful piece to grace your home for years to come.

People with artistic talent find that furniture projects offer opportunities for creative expression: While many repair techniques in furniture restoration are basic and standard, you can put your creativity to work in the later stages of refinishing as you strive to achieve just the right look for your piece. Others discover that the challenge of problem-solving—or just fixing something that’s broken—can be satisfying.

One of the most obvious reasons to do anything yourself is to save money. Learning to restore furniture allows you to turn that yard sale or auction bargain into something of value for your home at a fraction of the cost of a comparable fully restored piece.

This restored walnut rocker, which originally cost the author less than $20, remains a bargain, even when you include the expense of a professional upholstery job. Note the handsome hand-carved grape cluster (inset).

One of the first pieces of furniture I ever acquired and transformed was an old walnut Victorian rocker. The upholstery and springs were missing, but I knew the wood rocker and its frame were redeemable. The top of the rocker featured a beautiful hand-carved grape cluster, and I knew the chair could be a true thing of beauty once I refurbished it. I paid less than $20 for the chair, restored it, and had a professional upholsterer add springs and fabric. Even including the price I paid for a professional upholstery job, the antique rocker was a great bargain. Today that chair continues to occupy a place of honor in my living room more than 20 years after I first brought it home. Guests never fail to comment on its beauty and comfort.

Restored wood furniture usually has a value equal to—and in many cases greater than—a comparable new piece available in today’s furniture stores. Much of today’s manufactured furniture lacks quality construction, making wide use of plastics and other non-wood materials. Restoring old furniture that is not truly “antique,” but all wood and built solidly, still makes sense in terms of practical use and value.

Another money-saving aspect of restoring furniture yourself is that when problems develop in your own household furniture, you can repair them. Keep in mind, however, that you need to know how to do the job correctly before attempting your own repairs. As a professional furniture restorer, I’ve had to salvage many botched repair attempts. Trying to fix a piece after it’s been improperly repaired is more difficult and expensive than simply doing it right the first time.

Yet another reason for furniture restoration is sentimental attachment. Your mother’s china cabinet or foot-pedal sewing machine may not be a true antique or worth thousands, but you may never be able to replace its value as a family heirloom.

I once restored a 40-year-old nightstand that was in terrible shape, with water damage and a broken top, for a customer. The piece was not monetarily valuable, but it had been part of the first bedroom suite of the customer’s parents, and their daughter, my client, had it restored for them as a surprise Christmas present. That client later wrote me a thank-you note, commenting, “You did a beautiful job on the nightstand. As you know, the restoration was a gift for my parents. The expression on their faces when they saw it was worth three times the money I spent on the restoration.” Doing your own restoration projects on furniture with personal sentimental value can provide you with similar—or even stronger—feelings.

Even though your piece may not be worth thousands, restoring it can produce a useful and beautiful addition to your home, as in this restored pine chest of drawers.

Simple hand tools are often all that’s needed for successful furniture restoration. Bottom of page: a furniture restorer’s box.

Restoring furniture is something you can do in the setting of your own home, without a workshop full of expensive tools and equipment. If you have a basement, a garage, an extra room, or even an enclosed porch, you can make room for a furniture project. And although many professional furniture shops accumulate expensive tools and equipment, often you can do the work required using only simple hand tools and a few small power tools. If you have limited resources, you can buy your tools only as needed.

While it’s true that some aspects of furniture repair and restoration require more ability than others—and there are projects best left to the hands of a skilled furniture professional—don’t allow this to discourage you from starting your own furniture projects. If you are patient and determined to learn, you can undertake the majority of restoration projects without having a high level of skill, as long as you have knowledgeable sources to which you can refer as you work.

Whether you want to lovingly restore a treasured antique or you just want to be able to solve practical furniture problems around the house, the following pages will provide a wealth of information to help you. Before you begin a project, read over the material. Then keep this book on hand for quick, easy reference while you work on your piece.

Each step-by-step project in the book begins with a suggested list of the tools and materials necessary to complete the work. Each task also begins by rating the level of difficulty of the work to be done on the furniture. The level of difficulty is indicated by one, two, or three hammers:

Easy, even for beginners.

Moderately difficult. Can be done by beginners who have the patience and willingness to learn.

Difficult. Can be done by the do-it-yourselfer but requires a serious investment of time, patience, and money in specialty tools. Consider consulting a specialist.

These difficulty ratings should help you gauge whether you want to tackle a project or not. This way, you won’t be well into a project before discovering that you’re in over your head.

It’s important that—as a hobby—furniture restoration is able to be enjoyed. It is my hope that this book will help you have many hours of enjoyment as you set your hand to the task of furniture repair and restoration.

PART IHOW TO BEGIN

CHAPTER 1GETTING STARTED

CHAPTER 2TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

CHAPTER 3REPAIR MATERIALS

CHAPTER 4REFINISHING SUPPLIES AND MATERIALS

1

GETTING STARTED

In this chapter you’ll learn how to determine whether a piece of furniture is worth restoring. You’ll also learn how to check for what exactly needs to be done to restore it. This examination involves not only the obvious things like the condition of the finish but also such items as loose joints and veneer, splits in wood, worn interior drawer runners, and even run-down hardware and mirrors. After you’ve learned what has to be done to restore the piece, you’ll find out how to prioritize the work. Lastly, you’ll learn about the kinds of wood (both hardwood and softwood) commonly used in furniture construction so you can identify them as you work on your various furniture projects.

FURNITURE EXAMINATION

As a professional furniture restorer, I’ve examined thousands of pieces of furniture over the years to determine their condition and to provide repair cost estimates. After carefully inspecting a piece and presenting a cost estimate, it’s not unusual for me to hear a customer exclaim, “I didn’t pay that much when I bought it!”

Many times, after discovering that the customer had recently acquired the piece at a yard sale or flea market at a bargain price, I’m tempted to reply, “That explains why it needs so much work.” In other cases, I might find out that the customer bought the piece 20, 30, or even 40 years ago—when it cost a fraction of what a comparable piece would cost today.

If you’re considering a piece of furniture for restoration, whether you’re thinking about buying it or you already own it, you must know beforehand what to look for and how to inspect the piece. Some questions to consider before making the decision are listed in “Evaluating the Piece of Furniture,” here. Once you know that you definitely want to restore the furniture, you must decide on your course of action.

Determining What Needs to be Done

What should you look for to determine the kind of work a piece needs? Some things, like broken legs or missing veneers, are obvious. Other problems, however, such as previous bad repairs, missing or damaged drawer runners, or loose veneer, will show up only under careful examination. Look over the piece closely from top to bottom and make a list, if not on paper at least mentally, of what restoration work you’ll have to do on the piece.

This Chippendale coffee table shows extensive water damage to the finish and, to some degree, the wood (left). Restoration of the table (right) makes a significant difference in appearance.

This slant-top desk is from the early nineteenth century. Any restoration work will need special care by a knowledgeable professional. The open lid reveals the detailed interior of the antique desk (inset).

Finish Quality. First, consider the piece’s finish condition: Does it need refinishing—which involves totally stripping off the old finish, preparing the wood, and putting on a new finish—or can you clean, preserve, or rejuvenate the existing finish? Except for modern furniture, most pieces will hold their value better if they retain their original finish.

This rule is especially true for antiques—loosely defined as pieces that are at least 100 years old. The strict definition of antique furniture adhered to by many purists, however, includes only furniture made before 1830, the year mass production began. Many antiques have been significantly devalued by refinishing or restoration work.

If you think your piece fits this category, don’t do anything to it until you consult with a professional furniture conservator or antique appraiser to determine its value and what, if anything, should be done to it. If something needs to be done, this type of work is best left to a knowledgeable professional. To find qualified furniture conservators or appraisers, call museums, historical societies, or The American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works in Washington, D.C., and ask for recommendations. Not all furniture restorers are qualified to do this type of work.

EVALUATING THE PIECE OF FURNITURE

Ask yourself the following questions to help you decide whether you want to undertake a furniture-restoration project:

• Do you like the piece? You’ll probably enjoy working on something only if you really like it or want it in your own home, or if you’re doing the work for someone else and you know he or she likes the piece.

• How much will the piece be worth once it’s restored? To familiarize yourself with furniture values, visit antique furniture stores, used furniture shops, and even new furniture stores, and note the prices on furniture comparable with the piece you are considering restoring. Even if the piece won’t have much monetary worth, you may still want to restore it for its sentimental value.

• Do you have a place or use for the piece? No matter how fine a piece that needs restoration may be, it will be of little or no use if you have no place to put it.

• Do you have the time to do the work? At a minimum, you’ll need occasional weekends and perhaps one or two nights a week free to work on the furniture. Otherwise, you probably shouldn’t consider restoring your own furniture.

• How much time will you need? If you’ve never restored furniture before, it may be difficult to estimate the amount of time a project will require. I’ve found that most projects require more work than is apparent at first glance. Sometimes even after a careful evaluation, a project will be more time consuming than you first realized. The important thing is not to rush; take as much time as necessary to do the job right and enjoy the work. Even if you only have one night a week free or perhaps a weekend now and then, you can still complete a project by working step by step over a period of time.

• Is the piece worth restoring? This question immediately leads to several others, chief among them: How much work do you need to do? (See “Determining What Needs to Be Done,” here.)

Though not extremely valuable, this old trundle sewing machine, when restored, would provide an interesting conversation piece for any room.

Most furniture, however, does not fall into this category, so you can approach it with less reverence. The finish may look so bad that you’re unwilling to live with it. If water or heat has damaged the furniture extensively, for example, it’s likely that you’ll have to remove the finish. Sometimes you can greatly improve a poorly finished (or refinished) piece by refinishing it yourself. If you can determine that the current finish is not original, and the color or shade is objectionable to you, consider refinishing it. An original finish will usually show natural wear and aging. This aging is called patina. Chair arms and rungs or stretchers, for example, may show wear in the finish; scratches and stains will have affected the surface of the finish rather than just the wood underneath as in a refinished piece. (See “Is the Finish Original?” here, for more on how to determine an original finish.)

Structural Repairs. Next, examine the furniture closely for any necessary repairs. Look at the structure or main joints of the piece. Sometimes loose joints aren’t obvious; exert some firm pressure on a joint to see whether it moves. With chairs, for example, grasp the top back rail with one hand while firmly holding down on the front seat rail with the other. Push back and forth on the back to determine whether the joints move at all. Next turn the chair up, grasping two legs at a time, and exert pressure to move the legs back and forth. If you feel any movement in the joints, you’ll probably need to reglue them. You can check table legs in similar fashion. Grasp chests and cabinets at the top and firmly rock them from side to side to determine whether joints are loose or backs need repairs or reattaching. Take drawers out of chests and desks to make sure the drawer joints are tight.

When checking for loose joints in chairs, grasp the top back rail with one hand and hold down on the front seat rail with the other while pushing back and forth on the back.

Water damage to the finish of the drop-leaf table top above makes it a candidate for refinishing. The damage is severe enough so that the finish cannot be saved.

A drawer runner removed from a cabinet has been grooved by the drawer. The runner will have to be replaced or reinstalled upside down to provide a smooth surface for the drawer.

When examining joints on a bed, be sure to set the bed up and look at the side-rail joints at both the headboard and footboard. If these joints are loose or broken, the bed will never be stable.

Chest Drawers. A dresser or chest may be beautifully restored on the outside, but if you don’t repair drawer problems, your patience will be tried each time you open and close the drawer. Check to see whether drawers work smoothly. Do they stick? If so, the drawer sides or runners may need to be planed or waxed. Look for missing drawer stops. Also make sure existing stops will stop the drawer front flush with the front of the cabinet. Examine drawer runners both under the drawer and inside the cabinet to make sure they’re not missing or excessively worn or split.

Mirrors. If the piece has a mirror or glass, check to see whether any of it needs replacing. If the glass is old—indicated by the presence of waviness or bubbles—you might have trouble finding comparable replacement glass, and you’ll have to settle for new glass. If the silvering on the backside of the mirror glass has deteriorated, you may want to have the glass resilvered, or replace the mirror altogether.

Splits. Look for splits in chair and table legs, cabinet sides and tops, and table tops. On some older pieces, season cracks look natural and are acceptable, but sometimes cracks or splits, particularly those not caused by natural seasoning of the wood, look bad and can even affect the structural integrity of the piece.

Warped Wood. Also check for warps in the wood. As with season cracks, some warping is acceptable on old pieces but may be objectionable on newer furniture. Sometimes warping is easy to correct; other times it can be challenging, if not almost impossible, to fix permanently.

The cracks in this top are caused by natural seasoning of the wood and are generally acceptable.

Loose veneer is not always obvious, so check the veneer by tapping it with the fingernail side of your fingers. If you hear a hollow sound, the veneer needs to be reglued.

This table leg has been repaired incorrectly by installing a screw from the outside. To correct the repair, the screw and leg must be removed and the joint cleaned, reglued, and clamped until dry.

Bad Repairs. Next look for bad repairs. Often, old repairs are best left alone, but sometimes they demand attention because they detract from the piece or are not structurally sound. It’s not unusual to see home repairs made on chairs or table legs that threaten to give out at any moment and need special attention.

Missing Parts. Are there any missing parts, such as stretchers or rungs on chairs or tables? If the furniture has a carving, look for damaged or missing pieces. It’s always wise to look inside—and even under—drawers for these pieces, which previous owners may have stashed away for future repair. I’ve spent much time and effort replacing missing pieces only to discover them later, hidden in the bottom of a chest. A repair that would have taken 10 minutes ended up taking much longer, not to mention the missed opportunity of using the original part.

Loose Veneer. Don’t forget to look for loose veneer. Veneer can often appear intact when in reality it’s loose and ready to pop off. Test a veneer’s integrity by lightly tapping it, using the back, or fingernail side, of your index and middle fingers and alternately lifting them up and down. If the tapping sounds solid, the veneer is OK; if it sounds hollow, the veneer is loose and will need to be reglued.

Hardware. Lastly, examine all hardware and casters. If any components are broken or missing, find a replacement that matches. If it’s not possible to find a match, you may have to replace all the hardware on the piece.

This oak desk (above) will need extensive restoration work, including the regluing of many loose and disassembled joints, stripping, and refinishing. After restoration (right), the desk is a solid, functional, and attractive piece of furniture.

If the piece has steel hardware with brass plating, you can upgrade by installing solid-brass hardware. Order brass hardware from woodworking or furniture-repair websites or through local hardware stores. Check the old hardware with a magnet: If it sticks, it’s plated; if not, it’s solid brass, and you can clean and polish it to a beautiful luster.

Planning the Work

After examining the piece and determining what you need to do, schedule the work process. Make a list of everything that needs to be done, and put each item on your list in the order you’ll follow when doing the work. If you neglect this step, you may end up redoing things you’ve already completed. If you complete the finishing part of the project, for example, and then go on with repairs, you may find that you’ve damaged the new finish while doing the repairs. You’ll then have to go back and touch up the finish. The following is a general guideline you can use for work scheduling:

Repair Work. First you should complete the necessary structural work on the furniture.

• Remove all hardware, glass, and mirrors. The glass in some kinds of furniture may have been installed using glazing compound, a hardened putty used around the edge of the glass to hold it in place. Unless the glazing compound is damaged extensively, you should leave the glass in place and mask it off using a low-stick adhesive masking tape. If any of the glass or hardware needs replacing, now’s the time to find or order a replacement so it’s ready to install when the restoration process is complete.

• Make all the structural repairs. Reglue all loose joints and repair all breaks, cracks, splits, and warps. Make or replace any missing large structural parts, such as chair stretchers.

• Repair the drawers and doors. Fit all drawers and doors so they work smoothly. Repair or replace any drawer runners and drawer stops, if necessary.

• Repair the veneer. Replace any missing veneer, and reglue any loose veneer. Replace any missing small parts, such as applied carvings.

An old wooden console radio (left) and coffee table (below) are examples of collectible furniture that can be well worth restoring.

A painted piece of furniture, such as this kneehole desk, can take on a whole new look when it’s stripped and refinished in a natural wood finish.

Original Finish Restoration. At this point you will have completed the repair schedule and should have decided whether you want to restore the original finish or refinish the piece. If you’re restoring the finish, follow these steps:

• Clean, touch up, and rejuvenate the existing finish.

• Clean and polish all glass and hardware, and reinstall it.

Finish Removal and Replacement. If you decide to remove the old finish and refinish the furniture, follow these steps:

• Remove the old finish by using a chemical stripper or some other stripping method.

• Prepare the wood surface. Sand the wood, taking care of blemishes in preparation for the final finish. Fill, stain, or bleach the wood—you’ll do one or more of these steps only when appropriate.

• Finish the wood. Apply the finish you’ve chosen, following the step-by-step instructions.

• Clean and polish all glass and hardware, and reinstall it.

A variety of types of wood have been used in furniture construction. These woods (from left) can usually be identified by their color and grain pattern: heart pine, mahogany, walnut, cherry, pine, white oak, maple, red oak, poplar, birch, bird’s-eye maple.

WOOD IDENTIFICATION

Before restoring a piece of furniture, you’ll want to know what kind of wood you’re working on: solid or veneered, hardwood or softwood, open grained or closed grained. These factors can sometimes determine whether the furniture is worth restoring, as well as the type of repairs and finish the piece will require if you do restore it.

Identifying wood can be tricky because stains, finish, and aging can disguise wood by altering its original color and look. Light-colored wood, such as poplar, birch, or pine, is often stained and finished to look like more expensive walnut, cherry, or mahogany. Much modern manufactured furniture falls into this category. When you buy new furniture, read labels carefully to determine whether the wood is really what it seems. “Cherry finish” or “walnut finish” labels do not signify cherry and walnut wood—only that the piece is finished to look like those woods.

Older furniture can also fool you if you don’t inspect it carefully. Certain parts of a piece, such as the top or drawer fronts, may be made from a hardwood like mahogany or mahogany veneer, while other parts, like the legs or frame, may be made of inferior wood stained and finished to match. Side rails on many beds, both old and new, may be constructed of a less expensive wood like poplar or butternut, stained to match mahogany or walnut headboards and footboards.

Most wood exposed to sunlight for long periods will lose its characteristic color and become much lighter. Some woods, such as cherry, can darken with exposure to light or from treatment with oils, waxes, and polishes. In cases where a piece’s original wood has been altered, you will have to rely on your ability to recognize the grain, texture, and figure (grain patterns and other markings) rather than color. The more you work with furniture and become familiar with commonly used wood species, the easier it will be for you to identify them.

Wood is generally categorized into two groups: hardwood and softwood. Hardwood comes from deciduous trees, which have broad leaves that shed during a certain season of the year. Softwood comes from coniferous, or cone-bearing, trees with narrow leaves or needles that remain on the tree year-round.

The terms “hardwood” and “softwood” can be misleading. Although many types of wood in the hardwood category are indeed hard and dense, such as maple, oak, or walnut, there are others, like poplar, that are not. Most quality furniture uses hardwood in either solid or veneer form as a primary wood; a softwood like pine is used as a secondary wood for the inside of cabinets, drawer sides, backs, or bottoms.

Probably because of its availability, pine was used to build many early American furniture pieces. As hardwoods have become more expensive, pine has once again increased in popularity as a primary wood in furniture building and manufacturing. The following woods are commonly used to make furniture.

This antique Empire sideboard has been constructed using several types of wood to add to its beauty. The primary wood is mahogany (including crotch mahogany grain patterns for door and back panels) while bird’s-eye maple is used on the columns and in several center panels. The cabinet’s interior is constructed primarily of poplar, a practice common even in fine furniture like this.

Hardwoods

Birch. Common in the United States and Canada, birch is a strong, hard, even-textured hardwood. In its natural state the wood appears white or creamy yellow to light brown with a tinge of red. Often, birch is stained to match other kinds of wood in furniture. Much of the clear, cabinet-grade plywood is produced from birch, which takes stain nicely and finishes well. In addition to being used in furniture, birch is often chosen to make interior doors and cupboards.

Cherry. American black cherry is another popular furniture hardwood. Cherry grows primarily in the eastern United States and is a light reddish brown to brown color, which deepens into rich color as it ages. Cherry has a closed grain and is softer than birch. Much cherry lumber is narrow and has been used to produce many beautiful traditional furniture pieces.

Mahogany. Furniture makers have used mahogany for centuries. A strong, relatively hard wood that works and finishes well, mahogany is also used for decorative woodwork and was widely used in shipbuilding. Found in Africa, Central and South America, the West Indies, and southern Florida, mahogany falls into three basic categories: American mahogany (West Indian), African mahogany, and Honduran mahogany. Lauan, which resembles mahogany and comes from the Philippines, is often referred to as Philippine mahogany, although it’s not a true mahogany species.

In mahogany’s natural state the open-grain wood has a light pink to reddish brown color with a fine texture. In addition to straight grain, mahogany can have interesting patterns, including the crotch grain pattern often used as a veneer face for cabinet doors and drawers. Many people think of a harsh red color when they think of mahogany, but this is a result of dyes or stains that have been applied to the wood. Although you may find true mahogany finished in various tones of red, it can also be finished in beautiful warm brown or even golden tones.

Maple (Sugar Maple, Rock Maple). Maple, an exceptionally hard, dense, close-grained wood, is abundant in the United States. In its natural state the wood has a white or off-white to amber color. The grain is tight and subtle, except in the case of burl, curly, fiddleback, and bird’s-eye maple. These grain patterns offer a variety of interesting, beautiful configurations and are often used for decorative purposes in table tops, drawer fronts, or door panels, in both solids and veneers.

Because of the absence of a grain pattern in most maple, however, sometimes it can be hard to tell whether a piece of furniture is made of this wood. If so, lift the piece and judge it by weight. Because it’s so dense, maple is heavier than most other furniture-quality wood.

Oak. Common varieties of oak used in furniture include white oak, red oak, and English, or brown, oak. Oak has a pronounced open grain with a rough texture. It is quite hard, sometimes making it difficult to work. White oak has a slightly gray-brown color; red oak is similar except that it has a reddish brown tinge. English oak tends to be a deeper brown color.

During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, oak furniture began to be mass-produced in America, and so became popular and affordable. Many of the pieces manufactured at that time still exist today and have become even more popular as true antiques have become more expensive and difficult to find. Quartersawn oak is a distinctive and sometimes beautiful oak grain pattern used for decorative purposes on much of the late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century manufactured furniture. Quartersawn oak is milled by cutting the oak log into quarters lengthwise and then slicing the quarters into boards.

This hall tree is an American piece that relies heavily on the use of quartersawn oak for its decorative beauty.

Walnut has been used in many American furniture pieces and has a gray to chocolate brown color.

Poplar. Another American hardwood, poplar has a straight, even, closed grain, but it is fairly soft, making it easy to work. Poplar is white or yellow, sometimes with a green caste and an occasional dark streak running through it. Poplar accepts stain and finish well and often is colored to resemble mahogany or walnut. It is widely used as a secondary wood for the insides of cabinets, chests, and drawers.

Rosewood. Grown in Brazil and India, rosewood is a distinctive-looking hardwood. The wood is naturally brown or reddish brown with dark or ebony grain figuring, but it can sometimes have a creamy color in it. Often used in musical instruments like pianos or guitars, rosewood, unlike most kinds of wood, is resistant to shrinking.

In furniture, rosewood appears primarily in veneer form and was used generously on Empire- and Victorian-style furniture during the nineteenth century. Because of its hardness and density, rosewood can easily be finished to a high luster.

Teak. A yellowish brown open-grain hardwood, teak comes from India, Burma, and Thailand. This naturally oily wood is popular for both interior and exterior woodwork, especially on boats. In the world of furniture, you’re most likely to find teak in Scandinavian-style pieces, usually with a rubbed oil finish.

Walnut. Found in the eastern United States, American black walnut has been used extensively in furniture. The wood has a gray to chocolate-brown color, sometimes with purple streaks or light-colored sapwood on the edges of its boards.

Not as hard as maple or oak but harder than mahogany, walnut works well in furniture building and can be finished in warm wood tones. Walnut usually has interesting and beautiful grain patterns ranging from straight grain to swirl patterns to distinctive burl grains, depending on the cut of the wood. Because it’s an open-grain wood like oak, walnut must be treated with a grain filler to obtain a traditional smooth finish.

Another kind of walnut used in furniture construction, European walnut, is scarce and expensive. You’ll find this wood most often in veneer form. While American walnut darkens with age (though if exposed to UV light it will lighten), European walnut becomes lighter.

Other Hardwoods. Other kinds of hardwood used in furniture include ash, basswood, beech, butternut, and chestnut.

Ash and chestnut have a regular texture and open grain like oak. Ash is often used for garden tool handles and baseball bats but is occasionally used for furniture. Chestnut, valuable and well-known for its worm holes, has enjoyed some popularity in the form of wormy chestnut furniture.

Basswood and beech are both light-colored woods with tight, closed grains. These wood species can be stained to match other kinds of wood, such as cherry, mahogany, or walnut.

Similar in grain to walnut but light-colored, butternut may be stained to mimic walnut in furniture.

Softwoods

Familiar softwoods include pine, cedar, hemlock, fir, redwood, and spruce. Of these, pine, cedar, and redwood are most often used in furniture, including outdoor furniture.

Pine. Comprising a variety of species, pine may appear to have either a white cream to tan color or a yellow color with a brown grain figure. You’ll also see knotty pine, known for prominent and abundant knots in its boards, which has enjoyed some popularity, particularly in Colonial-style reproduction furniture.

Found in abundance in America, pine has been widely used for many purposes besides furniture, including the construction of buildings and boats. Many early American furniture makers used pine as a primary wood, and it can be found in some finer furniture as a secondary interior wood for drawer sides, bottoms, and runners. Pine, which can be finished attractively, continues to be a popular wood for some types of furniture today. You should note, however, that because pine has a tendency to accept liquid wood stain unevenly, producing a blotchy appearance, you should normally seal the wood before staining. (See “Washcoat,” here.) This does not apply to gel stains.

Wood veneers have been used in furniture construction for centuries and their beautiful distinctive colors and grain patterns can often beautify or accent an otherwise plain piece of furniture. Clockwise from left, the ones shown here are crotch mahogany, Honduran mahogany, Brazilian walnut, white oak, walnut, red oak, cherry, burl walnut, and rosewood.

Cedar. Cedar is a pink-to-brown close-grained wood used for exterior as well as interior woodwork, owing to its resistance to decay. Because cedar has an aroma that is disagreeable to insects such as moths, it’s commonly used to line chests and closets used for garment storage. Cedar wood produces a distinctive, pungent fragrance.

Redwood. Like cedar, redwood is also used for exterior work because of its resistance to decay and insect infestation. As its name implies, this natural wood is red in color; manufacturers use it to produce exterior furniture, such as picnic tables or deck furniture.

Inlays and Veneers

There are many wood varieties that are not used as the primary wood in furniture construction but are frequently used as inlays and decorative pieces in the form of veneer. These wood species include satinwood, boxwood, holly, and ebony. While some are extremely distinctive in appearance, others are harder to identify. These exotic types of wood have been used for centuries to enhance the beauty of furniture.

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TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

When you consider setting up a work area to begin your project, you might immediately think of a particular part of your home: the garage, the basement, an unused room, even a spot out in the backyard. All of these and more have been successfully used as home furniture-restoration workstations, but only when certain conditions are met. Once you’ve chosen the work area, you’ll need certain tools and equipment to complete your projects successfully. Here’s a look at what creates a favorable work environment for a home workstation and how you can stock it properly and safely.

THE WORK SPACE

For most furniture pieces, such as chairs, small tables, chests, or dressers, you’ll need an area that measures about 100 square feet (10x10 feet, for example). If you plan to work on larger pieces like wardrobes, large dressers, or banquet-type dining tables, however, you’ll need to expand the work area accordingly to fit the piece. Keep in mind that you may have more than one piece in your work area at a time. The best work area is one you can isolate from other areas of activity so that it can be kept as dust-free as possible when doing finishing work. You’ll also need both work space and storage space for tools and supplies.

Ventilation. Although you’ll want to keep your work area closed off from other areas, you’ll still need a fresh-air supply. Some furniture restoration work, such as repairs, can be done without concern for ventilation. Other phases of the work, such as stripping and finishing, which generate strong fumes, must have proper ventilation. To deal with hazardous fumes you’ll need at least two windows or doors, one on each side of the work area.

Temperature. Temperature control in your work space is also important. Ideally, you should maintain a temperature range of 65 to 75 degrees F, with a low humidity level, particularly during the finishing process. Temperature considerations aren’t as crucial while doing repairs, sanding, or stripping, although some glues may not work well or dry properly if temperatures are too cold.

Power. Don’t forget electricity accessibility as you plan your home work space. Have at least two electric plug outlets, which will enable you to plug in a small power tool and an electric light source at the same time. If wall receptacles are not available, look for overhead light-bulb sockets. These can be fitted with a screw-in adapter, providing a plug-in receptacle and light-bulb socket combination. You may also be able to run a heavy-duty extension cord with two outlets to your work area. If you’re running a cord outdoors, use one rated for exterior use.

Lighting. Lighting is a crucial consideration for your work area. Basements and garages typically have just enough light to see but not enough to see well when performing detailed repair work or furniture finishing. During daylight hours, you may have enough windows to provide adequate light, but night work means you’ll need as much light as possible. You can buy pre-wired fluorescent fixtures with a plug-in cord and mount them on the ceiling to provide additional lighting. You can also buy portable floodlights that hold standard light bulbs. These portable lights come equipped with spring clamps, so they can be easily moved and mounted wherever you need them while working.

Storage. Don’t forget about your work-space storage needs. You’ll need storage for tools, materials, and any parts or hardware disassembled from your furniture project. All solvents, chemicals, and finishes must be stored according to safety instructions that come with each product. Most, if not all, will need to be kept away from heat, sparks, and flame, so consider this as you plan your storage space.

You’ll need tools and equipment to be as accessible to your work area as possible. You can tuck other items, like stripping materials, finishing materials, and hardware, which you’ll use only from time to time, safely away in less convenient areas, even completely out of the work area.

The Work Space. Requirements for an ideal work space include good ventilation, access to power, good lighting, and safe, secure storage for chemicals and other materials.

The Workbench

You can create a simple, compact work surface using a 3x4-foot sheet of ¾-inch plywood resting on a set of sawhorses. A setup like this provides an ideal work surface to tackle small pieces, such as chairs, drawers, and bed parts, because it brings them up to a convenient working height.

You can also set a larger piece of furniture, such as a chest of drawers, on the horses without using the plywood. When you need to work on table tops or a large, freestanding item, you can quickly dismantle the workbench by leaning the plywood against a wall and then stacking the horses and setting them aside.

If you don’t have a set of sawhorses or don’t want to build them from scratch, you can buy a sawhorse kit at a hardware store, home center, or building supply center. Another possibility for a more permanent, stable workbench is to use an old library table, buffet, or flattop desk.

SAFETY

In my years as a furniture restorer I’ve witnessed many accidents—and even experienced a few myself. Most of the accidents I’ve seen resulted in only temporary injuries, although a few were more serious. You can avoid harm or injury by following some simple safety precautions. The tips listed here should help in making your home workshop a safe place, but remember that it’s your responsibility to ensure your safety and the safety of those around you.

Preventing Fires

Fire prevention is a primary consideration. Many of the materials used in furniture restoration are either flammable or combustible. Even wood sanding dust is highly flammable.

Avoid Smoking. First and foremost, establish a “no smoking” rule in your work area. If you are a smoker, remember that even if you leave the work area to smoke, you may still have flammable chemicals or solvents on your hands or clothing that could easily ignite. This happened once to a co-worker who had been using paint stripper. He lit a cigarette, and his shirt, splattered with stripper where he had inadvertently wiped his hand, caught on fire. Fortunately he was able to put out the fire quickly without injury. He was, however, inducted into the furniture-repair shop’s “Hall of Flame” as its first—and fortunately only—member.

You can make a good workbench surface for working on smaller items, such as chairs, by using 3x4-ft. sheet of ¾-in. plywood resting on a set of sawhorses. If necessary, you can use the sawhorses by themselves for larger pieces, or you can remove them, stack them, and set them aside to make room for freestanding furniture.

There are other, more subtle, fire hazards. Check stoves and furnaces for open-flame pilot lights. Consider any electric motors or equipment that could produce sparks: If excessive levels of vapor, mist, or dust build up, these could be fire-ignition sources. Be careful not to create sparks with metal tools, or even static electricity.

Dispose of Used Rags Properly. Rags used for stripping, cleaning, staining, and finishing are ideal candidates for spontaneous combustion. Oil-soaked rags—especially those containing quick-drying oils—are particularly susceptible to this hazard. Spontaneous combustion occurs when heat generated by the chemical reaction of volatile materials in, say, rags containing finish builds to a point where it causes the rags to ignite and burn. This can occur in chemical-soaked rags that are simply left lying around, balled up or lying on top of one another. The safest way to get rid of used rags is to unfold and hang them to dry completely before discarding them in a closed metal container.

Buy a Fire Extinguisher. Invest in a good fire extinguisher that’s rated for both type A (trash, wood, and paper) and type B (chemical) fires, either of which can occur in a workshop environment. Mount the extinguisher in an area that’s easily accessible in case of an emergency, and check it annually to be sure it’s charged and ready to use.

Assemble a First-Aid Kit. In case of a fire-related, chemical, or tool-handling accident, make sure you have a first-aid kit stocked with plastic bandages, gauze, scissors, first-aid cream, and eye-flushing solution.

Protecting Against Chemicals

Wear Breathing Protection. Another important safety consideration is how to protect yourself from toxic fumes and dust. Besides making sure you have an ample fresh-air supply, wear a respirator around fumes and a dust or particle mask when doing heavy or prolonged sanding.

When sanding a piece of wood that has been stripped or bleached, use a respirator because you may be breathing not only wood dust into your lungs but also all the chemical residues left from the old stripper, the old finish, or the bleach. Ordinary dust masks don’t protect you from dangerous chemicals and finish fumes. Respirators have special disposable organic cartridges for this purpose. When the cartridges need to be replaced, you’ll begin to smell the fumes from solvents while wearing the mask.

Store respirator masks in sealed plastic bags to make the cartridges last longer. Respirator masks, although considerably more expensive than dust masks, are a worthwhile investment if you plan to do stripping or finishing work.

Protect Your Eyes, Skin, and Ears. When you’re using solvents, chemicals, and finishes, eye and skin protection are also important. Protect your eyes by using safety goggles or glasses, preferably glasses with enclosed sides, whenever you do work that could pose any danger to your eyes. Keep an eye-flush bottle in your first-aid kit in case a chemical splashes into your eyes.

You should use gloves whenever your hands will be in finish remover, or any solvents, such as mineral spirits, alcohol, lacquer thinner, and stain. Although failure to wear gloves may not be a health hazard, wearing them will keep your hands clean. Vinyl or latex gloves are fine for most jobs, and they’re inexpensive and disposable. They are also thinner, so you can get more of a feel for what you are doing. If you want more protection for jobs like stripping finish, use industrial-type gloves made from neoprene, which resists virtually all chemicals. These gloves are available in long-length versions, which protect not only your hands but your wrists and forearms. Rubber gloves will protect your hands from most stripper stains and solvents. After prolonged use the gloves may weaken, so keep several pair available in your workshop. Protect your clothes with a chemical-resistant bib apron.

Important safety items for any furniture workshop include a closed metal container for used rags, an appropriate fire extinguisher, and a well-equipped first-aid kit.

Safety equipment, such as gloves, safety glasses, hearing protectors, respirators, and dust masks, can provide you with appropriate protection when doing various aspects of furniture restoration.

You may need ear protection if you plan to use loud power tools, such as a circular saw or electric sander. Use industrial ear plugs or earmuff-type hearing protectors.

Store Chemicals Safely. Storage is also a safety issue. Many solvents, chemicals, and finishes need to be stored away from heat, sparks, and flame, in properly labeled, sealed containers. Caustic materials should be kept in their original containers with the original label. Never store finishes, paints, or thinners in drink containers like cups, soft-drink bottles, and milk cartons. Children associate cups and bottles with food and drink. Keep all solvents, chemicals, and finishes locked away from the reach of children or pets. If you are unable to lock them in cabinets, lock up your entire work area when you’re not present.

Check containers at least once a year for rust, corrosion, or swelling. If any of these things occur, discard the item properly or transfer contents into a new, properly labeled container.

Be Environmentally Responsible. Most home-workshop applications don’t pose major environmental safety problems because of the small amounts of hazardous materials used. But keep in mind that finishes applied with spray guns or aerosol cans can affect air quality. Disposing of old thinners by pouring them down a sink drain or on the ground can pollute ground water. If possible, try to use up all chemicals. If you must dispose of leftover chemicals, consult your local waste management department or consult the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) website at https://www.epa.gov/hw/forms/contact-us-about-hazardous-waste.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

Before you begin a project, turn to the section of this book dealing with your particular project and read over the material to see what tools you’ll need. If you don’t have a particular tool, consider whether you can substitute something that will work just as well. (See “Improvising Tools,” on here.) Before you buy a new tool, determine whether it will be something you can use frequently. If it’s an expensive item that you’ll rarely use after you complete your project, you might be able to borrow or rent it instead of buying it.

Hand Tools

Hammer. A claw hammer is essential for most furniture jobs. Claw hammers are designed not only for hammering and nailing, but also for extracting nails from wood. Unlike finish claw hammers, which usually weigh 16 ounces, and framing hammers, which weigh 20 ounces or more, furniture claw hammers range from 7 through 13 ounces. You may also use an upholstery tack hammer for replacing upholstery. Lightweight and narrow, upholstery tack hammers have a magnetic tip on one end of the head for picking up and starting tacks while using only one hand.

THE PROS KNOW

IMPROVISING TOOLS

Start your furniture restoration “career” by buying only what you need, and increase your equipment collection piece by piece. If you have a limited budget, look for ways to improvise.

Make Do. Use a claw hammer and a piece of softwood in place of a rubber mallet to knock loose joints apart or to tap them together when regluing. Sometimes you can use a large nail in place of a nail set or scratch awl. Use a ruler or yardstick instead of a measuring tape or folding ruler. You can substitute a clamp for a vise when you need to lock a workpiece to your bench. Try using a household grapefruit knife in place of a small spatula. Glue a piece of felt, cork, or leather to a block of wood as a sanding block for hand sanding.

Clamp Ingenuity. If you need a few small clamps but you have only one or two, use a pair of vise-type pliers as a small clamp. Create a tourniquet clamp for regluing joints using a piece of sturdy clothesline and a paint paddle or wooden dowel to replace a band or strap clamp. (See the “Tourniquet Clamp” drawing.) Another inexpensive idea for some clamping jobs is to make a clamp using wedges and a wood block or two. (See the “Wedge Clamp” drawing.) Because some glue-up jobs require extra long clamps—which can be quite expensive—you can sometimes hook two shorter clamps together to do the job. (See the “Double Clamps” drawing.)

No Substitutions, Please. Although you can improvise creative substitutions similar to the above examples, some aspects of furniture restoration require the right tool for the job to guarantee success. You’ll need a good natural-bristle brush to apply solvent-based finishes like varnish or brushing lacquer, for example. Natural-fiber brushes apply these finishes more evenly than brushes with synthetic fiber, and they won’t break down or melt when exposed to strong solvents such as those in lacquer. You’ll also need a natural-bristle brush if you use a paint and varnish remover to strip an old finish, although for this purpose a cheap brush will do. Chemical removers can soften and melt synthetic bristles. Synthetic-fiber brushes such as nylon, polyester, or nylon/polyester blends work best when applying water-based finishes, however. Natural bristles tend to splay and lose their shape when exposed to water, making them awkward to use.

A rubber mallet is good for knocking loose furniture joints apart and banging them together when regluing. The rubber head minimizes damage to the furniture’s finish and wood. Use a wooden mallet to tap a wood chisel when you need more force behind it. The wooden head doesn’t damage wooden chisel handles.

Measuring Tools. You’ll need to make accurate measurements when doing repair work on furniture. A steel measuring tape works well for this. You can also use a folding wooden carpenter’s rule, although it’s difficult to measure inside dimensions of drawers and cabinets with a wooden rule unless you get one that’s equipped with a small sliding brass rule at one end.

Squares also come in handy for precise furniture work. You can use a large carpenter’s framing square to check the squareness of drawers and cabinets or a sliding T-bevel (also known as a bevel gauge) to copy odd angles. Other kinds of squares you might want include try squares, adjustable combination squares, and large T-squares, which are especially good for use as a straightedge.

Hammers used in furniture repair include (from top) an upholstery tack hammer, mallets (wooden and rubber), and a lightweight claw hammer.

Measuring tools such as these, including various types of squares for checking the accuracy of angles, are often required for furniture work.

Handsaws. Handsaws are a must for cutting and shaping wood on the small scale needed for furniture work. A backsaw, a small square-ended handsaw with a rigid back and fine teeth designed to do precise cutting, is best for working on furniture.