Unravelling the Silk Road E-Book

Christopher Alexander

• Herausgeber: Icon Books
• Kategorie: Lebensstil
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 538

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

Three textile roads tangle their way through Central Asia. The famous Silk Road united east and west through trade. Older still was the Wool Road, of critical importance when houses made from wool enabled nomads to traverse the inhospitable winter steppes. Then there was the Cotton Road, marked by greed, colonialism and environmental disaster. At this intersection of human history, fortunes were made and lost through shimmering silks, life-giving felts and gossamer cottons. Chris Aslan, who has spent fifteen years living and working in the region, expertly unravels the strands of this tangled history and embroiders them with his own experiences of life in the heart of Asia.

Leseprobe

To my parents, who raised me adventurously.

Published in the UK in 2023 by

Icon Books Ltd, Omnibus Business Centre,

39–41 North Road, London N7 9DP

email: [email protected]

www.iconbooks.com

ISBN: 978-178578-986-1

eBook: 978-178578-987-8

Text copyright © 2023 Chris Aslan

The author has asserted his moral rights.

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the material reproduced in this book. If any have been inadvertently overlooked, the publisher will be pleased to make acknowledgement on future editions if notified.

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, or by any means, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

Typeset by SJmagic DESIGN SERVICES, India

Printed and bound in the UK

CONTENTS

List of Illustrations

Maps

Author’s Note

Prologue: Crossroads

Introduction: Spinning a Yarn

PART ONE THE WOOL ROAD

1.Tartan in Tartary

2.The Roof of the World

3.How to Get Down from a Yak

4.The Tent Dwellers

5.Nomads No More

6.A Carpet to Baba Lenin

PART TWO THE SILK ROAD

7.The Heavenly Vegetable

8.Worms that Changed the World

9.At the Heart of the Silk Road

10.From Moth to Cloth

11.Silk in Flames

PART THREE THE COTTON ROAD

12.A Plant that Killed a Sea

13.Magical Protection

14.Great Exploitations

15.From Mohammed to Marx

16.The International Cotton Boycott

17.Embroidering The Truth

Loose Ends

Epilogue: A New Road

Glossary

Bibliography

Acknowledgements

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Map of the whole of the Eastern Med, through to China

Map showing the modern-day borders of Central Asia

COLOUR PLATE SECTION

1.Cherchen man

2.A burnt-out courtyard in Osh

3.Down from a yak

4.The jailo

5.A yak herder with a newborn yaklet

6.Interior of a yurt

7.Weaving palas

8.Trialling American and Mongolian combs

9.Making felt

10.Embroidering suzani

11.Folio from a manuscript of Layla va Majnun by Jami, Harvard Art Museums/Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Gift of John Goelet, formerly in the collection of Louis J. Cartier. Photo © President and Fellows of Harvard College, 1958.75

12.Soviet poster

13.Silkworms

14.Teal atlas silk warp threads

15.Atlas silk warp threads drying

16.The last Emir of Bukhara, photographed by Prokudin Gorsky around 1908. Prokudin-Gorskiĭ photograph collection, Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division. LC-P87- 8086A-1

17.Samarkand locals photographed by Prokudin Gorsky around 1908. Prokudin-Gorskiĭ photograph collection, Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division. LC-P87- 8002

18.Dhakka Muslin

19.Detail from a suzani

20.A bride wearing seven veils

21.The author with local boys on the prow of The Karakalpakia

22.A cotton boll

AUTHOR’S NOTE

There is a glossary of terms at the end of the book. All temperatures are in degrees Celsius.

As for pronunciation, Russian loanwords with ‘zh’ are pronounced with a soft ‘j’, like the ‘s’ in measure or pleasure. ‘Kh’ sounds, such as Khiva or Khorog, are pronounced the way Scots say the ‘ch’ in ‘loch’. I’ve generally aimed for consistency in the spelling of place names, so that Bokhara and Bokhoro have given way to the standardised Bukhara.

The area of Central Asia has been called different things over the years. In ancient times it was Transoxiana, or the land beyond the Oxus River. Medieval Europe knew it as Tartary, then later it became known as Turkestan, or Russian/Chinese Turkestan once under colonial rule. I’ve used different terms depending on which period I’m writing about. Today, Central Asia is generally understood to refer to the former Soviet -stans, possibly with the inclusion of Afghanistan and Xinjiang province.

At the end you will find a bibliography with books that I found particularly helpful highlighted in bold.

PROLOGUE

Crossroads

It’s a bold claim but I’m going to make it anyway: everything is about textiles.

As the only mammals without brown fat layers to metabolise for warmth or adequate hair or fur to insulate us, we’ve had to compensate by using our cunning and creativity. Our need for covering may have sped up our evolution, as early humans required tools to transform animal skins into clothing, and more sophisticated methods to create woven cloth.

Our preoccupation with textiles kick-started the Industrial Revolution, and even before that, the primary preoccupation of humans – using more man-hours (or more commonly, women-hours) than any other activity (including farming) – was textile production. The ghosts of textile words are present even as you read this book. The very term ‘text’, for example, comes from the word ‘textile’, thanks to the ancient orator Quintilian who described the Greco-Roman art of rhetoric as the weaving together of words, much as fabric gradually takes shape on a loom.

The most iconic textile to transform the world, ushering in the first era of globalisation, was silk. The network of trading routes it spawned, connecting East and West, is known as the Silk Road. At its heart lies Central Asia, a region that for fifteen years I called home. An estimated 10 per cent of the Roman Empire’s wealth was frittered away on silk and other eastern luxuries, causing consternation in the treasury. Eventually, silk became so associated with decadence and debauchery that Roman men were banned outright from wearing it, lest it corrupt or effeminise them. Also passing along these new trading routes were unfamiliar fruits, vegetables, animals, fashions, artistic styles, inventions, ideas and religions. Globalisation is not a new phenomenon.

However, this is not the only textile road to tangle its way across Central Asia. There is an older road which allowed the vast and often inhospitable landscape to be populated in the first place. It is the Wool Road. It followed the Great Eurasian Steppe which stretched from Hungary all the way to Mongolia and Eastern Siberia. This wild, treeless sea of grass, far from caves or other shelter, could not be traversed in one summer. Winter temperatures of -60 degrees, with howling winds and no natural shelter, meant that the only way to survive along this road was to live in houses light enough to carry but insulated enough to provide warmth. These houses were made of wool.

This Wool Road spawned highly mobile people who were almost impossible to vanquish. Nomads could attack a town or village and then melt away, able to traverse vast distances with rapidity, sleeping in their saddles. Some nomadic people, such as the Xiongnu, the mountain barbarians, or the Yuezhi, the hairy barbarians, harried China so much that the Great Wall of China was built in response. A few nomadic leaders had greater ambitions than merely raiding. They formed vast empires, becoming the scourge of those they conquered. Most infamous were Attila the Hun, Genghis Khan and Amir Timur. Nomads have always been treated with suspicion and misunderstanding by sedentary people and the consequences for nomads during the Soviet era were devastating.

A third textile road winds across Central Asia, passing diagonally through the other two roads, from India to Russia. It is a road which decided the fate of Central Asia in the 19th and 20th centuries; one that made fortunes, exploited people and natural resources, brought down governments and killed a sea. It is the Cotton Road. While Russia exploited Central Asia for its cotton, a longer, parallel exploitation took place in India, until one man turned cotton against British colonial rule and brought down an empire. Cotton has inspired countless examples of Soviet and post-Soviet art and propaganda. Its effects on the Aral Sea and the health of both the surrounding people and landscape have been even more catastrophic than that other Soviet-made ecological disaster, Chernobyl.

So, this is a book about three textile roads, focussing on their crossing points rather than any terminus. I’ve also embroidered each of these roads with my own experiences of living in the region. I spent seven years living in the desert oasis of Khiva in Uzbekistan, where I founded a silk carpet workshop to create livelihoods at a time of chronic unemployment. My remit was to revive silk carpet-weaving, natural-dye-making and 15th-century Timurid carpet designs rediscovered in the illuminated pages of contemporary manuscripts. We ran out of space in the 19th-century madrassah that had been repurposed as our workshop, so I started a second workshop producing the same designs in silk embroidered onto cotton and became the largest non-government employer in town. Then, in 2005, popular protests in the city of Andijan were brutally supressed, leading to the deaths of hundreds, if not thousands of ordinary people. The Karimov regime needed a scapegoat and decided that International Development Organisations were somehow to blame, and I was expelled and blacklisted from Uzbekistan. I discovered five or six years later that others who had been expelled were no longer blacklisted and were able to return. So I do, whenever I can, leading tour groups and reconnecting with my Uzbek family and friends in Khiva. I wrote about the workshops in my first book, A Carpet Ride to Khiva: Seven Years on the Silk Road.

I then moved to Tajikistan and spent several years in Khorog, a border town nestled in the mountains of Badakhshan. Every morning I’d open my curtains and gaze across the valley at Afghan villages on the other side of the Panj River. I worked with a local professor to write a textbook for foreigners wanting to learn the local language, which had no official alphabet. I also made regular trips up to the high-altitude plateau known locally as the High Pamirs – meaning ‘Roof of the World’ – with similar topography to Tibet. Here, I taught herders how to get down from their yaks. Of course, they were more than capable of dismounting from their beasts themselves, with many boys learning to ride a yak before they could even walk. The ‘down’ I speak of is the soft cashmere-like undercoat that can be combed from a yak in late spring when they moult. When I arrived, herders were generally throwing it away. I wanted to start a knitting cooperative, turning this luxury waste product into adventure knitwear.

Next came a spell in Kyrgyzstan. I moved to a small mountainous village famed for its waterfalls, for its Islamic conservatism, and for being surrounded by the world’s largest walnut forest. Determined to rescue beautiful logs of walnut wood from the firewood piles of the village, I started a school for woodcarving.

Although I’m reluctantly based in Britain, I spend as much time as I can in Central Asia, leading tours there and reconnecting with friends. It is, after all, a place where I’ve left a large chunk of my heart.

INTRODUCTION

Spinning a Yarn

If I unpick my own road to Central Asia, it begins in the school library as I studied Soviet politics. In 1990, every world map was dominated by a huge red smear that crossed all the way from Europe to the Pacific. This was the Soviet Union. Lazily, I had assumed that it was just the communist name for Russia, and often people used the terms Soviet or Russian interchangeably. However, halfway through my course, the Soviet Union collapsed, and I decided to write my dissertation on the role of nationalism in its break-up. Reading more, I began to discover just how varied the peoples of the Soviet Union were, in terms of religion, language and ethnicity, and that a more accurate description of it was the Soviet Empire.

The Kazakh Socialist Republic alone was roughly the size of Western Europe. These were significantly large areas of non-Russian Soviet presence. I discovered Abkhazians, Georgians, Turkmen, Chechens, Tartars and Kalmyks, and found illustrations of these people in their national dress.

I was gripped. Although my parents are English, I was born in Turkey and spent my childhood there as my father was a professor at a university in Ankara. I knew that the Turks had originally come east from Central Asia, but hadn’t realised that there were so many other Turkic peoples out there, all sharing linguistic similarities.

Ruling over the largest contiguous empire the world has ever known was a centralised government that made economic decisions which I couldn’t understand. I read how in the twilight years of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev’s policy of perestroika allowed greater economic freedom, combined with subsidised public transport and a burgeoning unofficial market. This meant that a Georgian villager could pick two buckets of apricots from the trees in her orchard, get on a bus to the airport, fly over three hours to Moscow, sell the apricots on the street and then fly back to Georgia again that evening. And still make a tidy profit.

Now, though, these new countries, still vastly overshadowed by Russia, were having to make their own way in the world.

My interest in the region continued. I was determined to travel along the Silk Road and see some of these exotic former Soviet countries for myself. I managed to get a travel bursary from Leicester University, on the proviso that it funded something related to my course. I was studying media and journalism, so I contacted some of the development organisations that had proliferated in these new republics and offered to write news articles for them in return for bed and board. A few took me up on the offer.

With youthful certainty, rather than any actual financial accounting or a proper understanding of visa systems, I exchanged my earnings and bursary money into new US dollars – for some reason old notes were unacceptable – and stuffed them into my money belt, hoping it would be enough for the trip. I look back now in amazement at my readiness to head off with only the vaguest of plans for where I would end up, and with no contingency plan in case I was robbed. There were no ATMs where I was going, so the cash would simply need to last. I hoped to get as far as China but was relatively hazy about where I’d go after that, thinking I might try to get to Russia and return home on the Trans-Siberian train.

Or not. I wasn’t entirely sure.

In the end, I was persuaded by a New Zealander in Tashkent to avoid Russia completely. He assured me that the Trans-Siberian was just a really long and fairly tedious journey through featureless landscape dotted with the occasional onion-domed church. Much better, he said, would be to head for China and then traverse the Karakoram Highway from Kashgar down to Gilgit in Pakistan and fly out of Islamabad. I took his advice but was to have a near-death experience as a result.

My main concern before I left was that I might run out of books. So, I packed War and Peace in my hand-luggage – an epic novel for an epic journey – and a few other books I was happy to discard along the way. I’d borrowed an old rucksack from my dad, which he said had served him well as a student. It was a mistake. The rucksack was both heavy and uncomfortable and – as I discovered while in a bazaar in Turkmenistan – fairly easy to pickpocket. I also had a Russian phrase book, which might have been useful for ordering opera tickets, but other than that was fairly limited. It was my rusty childhood Turkish that was to prove more helpful.

It was 1996 and a privilege to lift the Iron Curtain and peek behind it, visiting countries just five years old that were coming to terms with their own national autonomy. As these new identities were being forged, there was still a reeling from the sudden collapse of a centralised system which had in no way prepared these former Soviet countries for independence. Even oil-rich Baku was struggling economically, despite the influx of oil companies keen to get drilling.

There were many highlights along the way, and moments I still remember clearly. The first was the thrill of reaching the border between Turkey and Georgia. Turkey felt very familiar, but just a few hundred metres away was a country that had recently emerged from behind the Iron Curtain. I joined the queue and passed through checkpoints fairly quickly on both sides, my passport scrutinised and stamped. There was a bench on the Georgian side where I waited for the bus, feeling nervous excitement at signs everywhere in bold Cyrillic or exotic Georgian script. But my excitement dampened as the hours went by. It was just before dawn when the bus finally arrived. Most of the other passengers were women, and were either traders or prostitutes. They all looked exhausted, and I wondered what money or other services had been extorted from them in order to let them pass. I soon learnt that the Soviet Union, and the new republics it had spawned, survived on the tenacity and determination of Soviet women, who did whatever was necessary to feed their families.

I saw little of Georgia on that first trip; it was only on subsequent visits that I discovered the amazing food and wine, the love of complicated toasts, and the stunning mountain scenery of the country. From Georgia I took another bus, this time to Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan. There, on the shores of the Caspian Sea, was the classiest of the capitals that I would pass through. The city was divided into three sections. The outer section was Soviet-era and largely grey blocks of flats. The inner section was a walled city, which was as large as Baku would get until the mid-19th century when the city overflowed with foreigners flocking to the world’s first major oil boom. The middle section, or ‘Boom town’, was a cacophony of different European architectural styles built around the same period, as former peasants – now millionaires – returned from tours of Europe with postcards of their favourite buildings, which they handed over to architects to reproduce, along with wads of cash.

Baku was about to experience another oil boom, but it hadn’t quite started. Taxi drivers were still university professors or opera singers, trying to make ends meet now that state salaries were virtually worthless. Those who could got jobs as cleaners or receptionists in the offices of the new international oil companies.

I spent a week in Baku waiting for the ‘daily’ ferry to actually leave for Turkmenistan. Arriving in the dusty port town of Krasnovodsk, I bit into my first slice of Turkmen melon, which was incredibly crisp and sweet, thanks to the searing desert temperatures. Later I learnt that skilled melon growers could even grow their crops in the desert itself, digging down to the root base of a camel-thorn shrub and making an incision into the main stem and inserting a melon seed. Not all would take, but those that did were able to draw on the camel-thorn’s extensive and deep-running root system, producing melons with a unique flavour.

Ashgabat, the Turkmen capital, was a fascinating study in presidential megalomania. Saparmurat Niyazov, the first secretary of the Turkmen Communist Party, had reinvented himself after independence as Turkmenbashi, or ‘leader of the Turkmen’. Everywhere there were slogans stating, ‘People, Nation, Turkmenbashi!’ His portrait was ubiquitous, and his golden revolving statue dominated the skyline. Shops may have had a limited amount of consumer goods, but there was plenty of Turkmenbashi aftershave or vodka (later I regretted not buying a bottle as a souvenir). This presidential cult had barely got into its stride – Turkmenbashi went on to write a holy book entitled The Rukhnama, promoted as equal to the Bible and Quran. Great swathes of this drivel had to be memorised and regurgitated in lieu of job interviews or university exams, or to pass a driver’s test.

After Niyazov died, the presidential cult continued with his successor, who managed to bankrupt the country through further mismanagement before handing over the reins to his son, a prince in all but name. Serdar Berdimuhamedow now rules a country with the world’s sixth largest gas reserves at a time when global gas prices are surging. Despite this, the people of Turkmenistan live in abject poverty. Water and power cuts in the searing summer temperatures are the norm, and most have to queue for hours outside state shops in the hope of buying cooking oil, flour or water. Meat is a mere memory. Unsurprisingly, these repressive and isolationist policies, along with a presidential cult, have led people to draw many parallels with North Korea.

I took a further train through Bukhara and Samarkand to Tashkent, the capital of Uzbekistan. I was learning how to navigate police corruption. ‘Problema,’ said a policeman as I got off the train in Tashkent, just before dawn. He ominously tapped my passport before walking off with it, beckoning me to join him in his office. A few weeks before, I might have panicked. Instead I simply told him, ‘Problema niet,’ got out my tatty copy of War and Peace and read for an hour or so in the police office, as it was still too early to call my hosts. Eventually, the irritated policemen chucked my passport at me with what I presumed was a muttered curse and shooed me on my way.

Jon, my host in Tashkent, arranged for me to work on a commemorative newspaper celebrating Uzbekistan’s fifth anniversary of independence. I had to turn the nominally translated English into something that was actually comprehensible, and enjoyed wading through the pages of nationalist propaganda. An article comparing the historical figure of Amir Timur with present-day President Karimov contained sentences such as ‘Historians note that the “General of Genius” did a good works amongst the European peoples.’ I wasn’t always sure what it was actually trying to say.

While the Soviet architecture of Tashkent was more concrete brutalism than anything oriental, the Silk Road came alive when Jon took me to Chorsu bazaar. Under retro-futuristic domes was a riot of colour and smells. I tried to keep my wits about me, mindful of pickpockets or garrotting myself on the strings that held awnings over the stalls, designed for people shorter than myself. I was intoxicated. The smoke and sizzle of shashlik wafted over us as a portly man skilfully rotated the skewers of six cubes of mutton. There are always six pieces, sometimes alternating between meat and mutton butt-fat; the word for six in Persian is shash, giving shashlik its name. We wandered through curtains of fabric, much of it silk, but with an increasing amount of glittery or sequinned polyester from China, while women bought metres to take to their local tailors for dresses.

It was late August and the fruit and veg section of the bazaar held an embarrassment of riches. Colourful mounds of bright red and green peppers, carrots strung together by their bushy green tops, and a whole section devoted to piles of enormous melons in all shapes and colours. There was a bed beside each stall as the heavy fruit could not be easily moved and would have to be guarded at night. A woman squirted bundles of fresh herbs with a plastic water bottle to keep them from wilting in the heat. Tomatoes were so large that three was already a kilo. We filled the string bags Jon had bought for the purpose. Plastic bags cost extra, and I was amused to find Morrisons bags for sale, wondering how these Northern British supermarket bags had ended up there.

‘Why’s it so busy?’ I asked Jon.

‘It isn’t,’ he explained. ‘You should see it on Sunday, which is called Bazaar-day. Then it’s really heaving.’

‘But why are there so many people? You said that there are plenty of other bazaars in Tashkent.’

Jon shrugged. ‘It’s where people go for something to do, or to meet a friend. Plus, most people like to buy their produce fresh, so they’ll come several times a week.’

Annette Meakin, a British travel author who stayed in Tashkent for a while at the turn of the 20th century, put it thus: ‘When a Sart*wants amusement he turns his steps instinctively towards the bazaar; when he wants news of what is going on in the world, he is off to the bazaar, and when in fact there is no urgent reason why he should be there, you will find him in the bazaar.’*

I got up early one morning and caught a bus to Samarkand for a day trip. After all, this was the heart of the Silk Road. I marvelled at the stunning Timurid architecture – a relief after the brutalist concrete architecture of Tashkent. At the Registan – a square with three sides dominated by the most incredible tiled madrassahs – renovation was taking place. Beneath a scaffold I noticed a broken piece of glazed green brick tile in the dust. Furtively, I pocketed it, breathless with transgression and the knowledge that I now possessed a 15th-century treasure in my bag. I didn’t. I discovered later that the Soviets regularly renovated these monuments, particularly as some of the Registan was destroyed in a large earthquake in 1886. The tile was probably younger than I was.

In the afternoon heat I passed by wheeled stalls offering carbonated water mixed with violently coloured cordial from medicinal-looking glass bottles, served from a communal cup. I stopped for refreshment in one of the teahouses and tried not to stare too obviously at those around me. There was still evidence of the great melting pot of varied people, brought together under Amir Timur’s ruthless reign. Women wore gypsy-style headscarves, some looking Mediterranean, others Mongol. They seemed a lot busier than the men, or perhaps just harder-working. Other than a group of stout older women, marked as pilgrims by their long white headscarves, seated in the teahouse that looked out at the Timurid-era Friday Mosque, most of the idlers were male. Older men sat cross-legged on raised seating platforms, resplendent with long white beards, striped robes and turbans wrapped around grubby skullcaps, playing backgammon or simply nursing a bowl of green tea, gossiping and watching life go by. At another seating platform were middle-aged men in greasy, well-worn suits, wearing black skullcaps adorned with four white embroidered chillies. The young men in the teahouse wore polyester tracksuits made in China with misspelt brand names and were undoubtedly uncomfortable in the heat.

I then travelled from Tashkent through the fertile Fergana valley, across an open border with no passport checks and into the city of Osh in Southern Kyrgyzstan. The famous market was filled with Uzbek men in their familiar black skullcaps and Kyrgyz men with more Mongol features, sporting tall bonnets made of white felt with black velvet trim. I experienced my first trip by UAZ. These high-clearance, khaki four-wheel-drive Soviet vans were both incredibly sturdy and extremely uncomfortable. Ours had a habit of breaking down, but when it did, there was usually someone selling melons nearby, or possibly kumiz. The passengers seemed happy to sit around and chat by the side of the road while the driver tinkered with the engine. I was offered a swig of kumiz and the other passengers laughed as I tried not to wrinkle my nose at the sharp, fizzy taste. It’s fermented mare’s milk and mildly alcoholic. After several bottles had been consumed and the engine fixed, the rest of the van sang Kyrgyz songs lustily and revelled in my applause, insisting that I sing a song from ‘Angliya’.

We climbed steadily in altitude heading for a mountain pass, and I could feel the heat radiating from the labouring motor under my front seat. At some point during the night, the driver stopped to get a few hours of sleep. I woke, sore and cold – my one warm top packed in the rucksack strapped to the van’s roof-rack – and stepped out of the van for a pee, greeted by steaming breath and a spectacular sunrise. Before a backdrop of soaring mountains, the hills were dotted with yurts and splashes of colour from clothes on washing lines. Smoke curled up from their chimneys and doors opened as girls went to milking and boys took their herds to graze.

We eventually arrived in Bishkek later that day, but I saw very little as I didn’t know anyone there and needed to get to Almaty, still the capital of Kazakhstan at that point, before nightfall. In Almaty, my favourite experience was a trip to the Arasan Baths. These were no run-of-the-mill Russian banyas but an opulent and yet distinctively Soviet complex of saunas and bathing pools. I had to wait a few days for my remaining visas, before taking a 36-hour train journey on the Genghis Khan Express from Almaty in Kazakhstan to Urumchi in China.

There were growing numbers of ethnic Han Chinese arriving in the city from Eastern and Central provinces of China every day; the park was filled with pagodas and red lanterns glowed outside Han Chinese restaurants, and yet Urumchi still felt surprisingly Central Asian. Uzbek phrases that I’d picked up along my travels seemed to work just as well with Uighurs, the largest indigenous people-group. Chinese influence, like the legacy of Russia in Central Asia, was more noticeable in municipal spheres such as hospitals, schools and universities rather than in the bazaars, teahouses or domestic settings. Certain parts of the city were where the Han lived, and other parts still retained their Turkic identity.

Even with my limited understanding as a tourist, I was aware of the ethnic tension, and it turned out that even the time you set your watch to was political. I walked naked out of my hotel bathroom as a Han cleaner opened my bedroom door without knocking, looking unapologetic given that she considered it ten in the morning and that I should already be out and about. My watch, as with most local people, was set two hours behind, which made far more circadian sense but was considered ‘separatist’ for being on local, not Beijing time. There was a constant cultural tug-of-war between Mohammed and Mao.

As more Han arrived daily, Urumchi, the regional capital, was filling up fast. Cranes bristled on the skyline, and Uighurs and other Turkic peoples were now a minority in the city. I still found streets where the smoke from sizzling sticks of mutton shashlik wafted in the air along with steam from fresh rounds of bread cooling from the oven, and the slap of laghman noodles being expertly hand-stretched and then whacked against a metal tabletop.

The one place where Han and Uighur seemed to mingle, or at least tolerate one another, was the People’s Park. I’d expected perhaps some older Han moving sedately together in communal tai chi around the beautiful ponds and pagodas. Instead, I was passed immediately on my arrival by a diminutive Han woman walking backwards and clapping loudly. Another woman strode by, waving her hands in the air, shouting. These were both time-honoured methods of improving circulation.

Then there were eager groups of Han retirees learning Uighur dancing, the men happily mimicking the coquettish flourishes of the women’s parts. There were also traditional Chinese dance classes, some involving swords, as well as line dancing, communal body-slapping and tai chi. I passed a ballroom dancing group where partners were optional. An old man swirled by holding an empty waist of air.

Young Uighurs and Han skateboarded together or did tricks using two sticks connected with string and something akin to a disembodied yoyo. In a shaded section of the park, older Han used giant broom-handled paintbrushes with water bottles attached above the brush to write out poetry in large watery Chinese characters onto the pavements. By the time they were finishing their last characters, the first ones were drying and disappearing.

Later I endured a 30-hour bus ride through the Taklamakan Desert to Khotan. The Jade City – as Khotan was known – was famous for its Sunday Bazaar, which had not been commercialised and commodified by the local authorities, as had happened in Kashgar. I joined herds of fat-tailed sheep trotting at pace with their large backsides wobbling as shepherds slapped them with sticks. There were carts drawn by horses resplendent with bright tassels, pompoms and sleighbells, blending with the clank of the cowbells as cattle and camels ambled slowly to market. The other bazaars I’d visited in Central Asia still had a distinctively Soviet feel to them, but here I felt swept up in the real Silk Road. Clanging resounded from the copper section of the bazaar as craftsmen hammered at their water ewers, basins, cauldrons and plates. Many were covered in beautifully intricate patterns. The carpenter section was full of lathes and more hammering, decorative gourds, painted wooden cradles, carved spoons, wooden stamps bristling with nails and used for decorating bread, and much more.

The livestock bazaar was just as noisy. Sheep were carefully lined up with odd numbers pointing in one direction and even numbers in the other, as if they’d just been expertly shuffled. There were spice spellers, and makers of fur hats and square embroidered skullcaps plying their trade. There were also reams and reams of gaudy atlas silk, made with a distinctive warp-resist method.

It was wonderful.

Perhaps the most memorable part of the whole trip was the bus journey from Kashgar, the historic Uighur capital, to Pakistan. Most of the passengers were pot-bellied, bearded Pakistani traders in shalwar kameez, who spent the journey gossiping, belching and spitting. The rest were backpackers from an assortment of countries. At first, the bus was stiflingly hot as we passed cotton fields being harvested by Uighurs. Gradually, we left the plains behind and climbed into the foothills of the mountains. We passed a caravan of shaggy Bactrian camels, heavily loaded with bales of merchandise, and I took blurry photos through the bus window. This was the Silk Road of my imagination.

We climbed further and the road opened onto high summer pasture studded with yurts, yaks, camels and sheep. My neck got sore from craning out of the window at this beautiful, raw landscape. By the time we’d reached Tashkurgan that night, we were already at 3,000 metres. The air had a nip to it and our rooms were equipped with bright pink thermos flasks and thick blankets.

We continued to climb the next day until we reached the Khunjerab Pass, the highest paved international crossing in the world, at almost 4,700 metres. We all disembarked and the Pakistani traders wrapped woven woollen pattus around themselves and stamped their sandalled feet to keep warm, while the tourists took photos. I wasn’t wearing enough.

The descent was quick and steep, with the road zigzagging sharply down hairpin bends. Then there was a sudden clatter behind me. One of the large panes of glass had fallen out of the bus and now cascaded in ever-smaller pieces down the side of the mountain. But the driver seemed unperturbed, and we continued, mountain air sweeping through the bus, down to the first habitation, a small village called Sost. This was where the bus terminated and where our passports were officially stamped.

The village consisted of flat-roofed mudbrick houses and lush green terraces full of orchards and poplars that already blushed yellow, as autumn started early up here. Flanking us were jagged, snow-capped peaks. I headed for a cluster of minivans, finding one going further down the valley to a village with a recommended guesthouse. A Japanese backpacker sat at the back and several local people had also taken their seats. I picked a spot and hoisted my hand luggage onto my lap, pulling out my tattered copy of War and Peace, and wondering if I’d finish it before the trip ended.

A few minutes later, my chest was stabbed with pain. It didn’t feel deep enough for a heart attack, but the pain was worse than any bee- or wasp-sting I’d experienced before. I shook the neck of the baggy T-shirt I was wearing in the hope that the hornet, or whatever it was, could fly out. There were two more stabs in quick succession. Peering down I saw, matted in my chest hair, a pale-cream scorpion, pincers moving and tail poised to strike for a fourth time.

I shrieked loudly and ripped off the T-shirt, flinging it and the scorpion out of the open sliding door. Staggering outside, I peered at three marks on my chest where blood had begun to trickle. ‘There’s a scorpion in my T-shirt,’ I announced to no one in particular, feeling a little faint. ‘I think I’m going to die.’

A crowd formed, alerted by my scream and curious about my state of undress. I tried to ignore the pain and think quickly, given this was a life-or-death moment. ‘Look,’ I told the crowd, pointing at my chest. ‘I’ve been stung three times by a scorpion. On my heart! I need a doctor. I’m going to die. Please, take me to a doctor.’

This elicited a wave of sympathetic head wobbling, and someone picked up my T-shirt, shook out the scorpion and squished underfoot it before handing the T-shirt back to me. ‘Very sorry sir,’ said one of the younger men who spoke a little English. ‘Clinic closed.’

‘Clinic?’ I asked, seizing on this vital information. ‘Yes! I need to go to the clinic. Now! I don’t have much time. Please, I need a doctor.’

‘Very sorry sir, clinic closed,’ said the man again with an emphatic wobble of the head. One of his friends offered me a pill of some sort, which I swallowed unquestioningly. Another offered me tiger balm which I dutifully rubbed onto my chest. I felt my left arm grow numb and become difficult to move. It’s starting, I thought to myself, forlornly. All I knew about scorpion stings was that in a film I’d seen as a child, a woman stepped on a scorpion and then just minutes later went into a fevered shock before dying. I had just minutes. Why was no one helping?

‘Please, take me to the doctor,’ I pleaded again, trying to keep my bottom lip from trembling.

The young spokesman for the crowd declared, ‘Not possible sir. You are okay. Many pain, no problem.’ Then, with an apologetic smile, he and everyone else began to disperse. I was left with the Japanese backpacker who spoke no English, but was furiously flicking through his guidebook in a bid to find information. I did likewise. Both our searches proved fruitless. I gingerly flopped my limp arm through the armhole of my T-shirt and pulled it back on.

The lack of concern was a good thing, I reasoned. No one wanted a dead tourist in their van, and they knew scorpions better than I did and didn’t seem to think I was in particular danger. There was nothing for it but to sit back down again. As the shock wore off, the pain kicked in, and it felt as if my chest had been stabbed with a white-hot poker. We set off, passing spectacular scenery, and I glanced out of the window, half-heartedly, my chest throbbing. I really wanted my mum.

An hour or so later, the van deposited me, still alive, outside the guesthouse. I was wobbly on my feet and couldn’t use my left arm properly, but I was alive. There were Americans, and now I had someone who would listen to my story and give me sympathy and, more usefully, a tube of antihistamine. My chest felt tender that night, but the following day I was fine and went trekking, crossing the river over a bridge made of steel wire and sticks.

Later, when I actually lived in Central Asia, I learnt that a sting from these small scorpions might kill a baby, but for an adult, it was merely a case of severe discomfort. In many ways, I was lucky to be stung on my chest and not somewhere more sensitive.

These scorpions were particularly common in mountainous regions. When I helped my local friends in Khorog to build a house, we often found scorpions resting beneath the boulders we were using instead of bricks. ‘Look, it’s a scorpion!’ I said, the first time I spotted one. My friends looked at me quizzically, wondering if I would also comment on the ants, or occasional centipede, given how commonplace scorpions were.

There was an older American couple who lived in Khorog, and on a visit to their traditional Pamiri house, our hostess, Melinda, suddenly yelped and ran out of the room, unbuttoning her blouse as she did so. This was unexpected, but then something caught our eye and we saw, twitching on the carpet in its death-throes, a small pale scorpion. It had fallen from the roof-beams into her cleavage, where it had stung her and then been crushed by her bosoms. I now know, should I ever get stung again, that whacking the offending scorpion until it’s turned to mash and then smearing this on the sting will help reduce the effects, as scorpions carry antibodies to their own poison in their bodies, in case they accidentally sting themselves.

I stayed for a week in the Hunza Valley, trekking and enjoying fresh chapattis and dahl drizzled with apricot-kernel oil. I would have stayed longer, but term was starting and I still didn’t know if I had enough money for a flight home. I think the Hunza Valley might just be the most beautiful place I’ve ever been. The mountainsides were covered in boulders that spelt out greetings to the Aga Khan, as most of the inhabitants were Ismaili and revered him.

After a terrifying overnight bus journey from Gilgit to Islamabad, the driver careening at speed around blind corners as we wove our way down from the mountains, I arrived in Islamabad. I was dishevelled and dirty but managed to purchase a last-minute flight that evening back to the UK, with just enough money left to get all my rolls of film developed.

I had ‘done’ the Silk Road.

Although, of course, all I’d done was skate across the surface. I blush at photos of my youthful self in inappropriately short shorts blithely standing beside the holy tombs in the sublime necropolis of the Shah-i-Zinda in Samarkand with no sense of my own cultural insensitivity. I have a photo of a man taken in Osh; on the back, I’ve written that he is Kyrgyz, when I can now see from both his features and dress that he is clearly Uzbek and that a border does not signify an ethnicity. The cotton fields had been obvious as I travelled through during harvest time, but I’d missed the significance of the many pollarded white mulberry trees I’d passed, not realising that they were grown for a thriving silk farming industry, also known as sericulture.

In Soviet museums I enjoyed cutaway yurts showing their fabulous textile trappings, but never questioned why there were so few nomads left now. As for the cotton-pickers, they simply added drama to my photos. I hadn’t stopped to think about their working conditions or whether they were actually getting paid, or why the children amongst them weren’t in school.

Instead, having ticked ‘The Silk Road’ off my bucket list, I got on with writing up news stories for the various development organisations who had hosted me, and a report for the university travel bursary board. I was in Leicester for two more years and had largely forgotten about Central Asia, until one of the development organisations I’d written for contacted me. It was a small Christian Swedish organisation called Operation Mercy and they had just opened a new branch office in the desert oasis of Khiva, which also happened to contain a walled old city considered by UNESCO to be the most homogenous example of Islamic architecture in the world.

The Mayor of Khiva had heard about this thing on computers called the interweb or something, and that it might be a good way of promoting his city to the outside world to garner more tourists. He approached Lukas, a Swedish graphic designer, asking him to create something. Lukas assured the mayor that he could make it look nice, but that he wasn’t a writer and would see if he could find one who would volunteer on the project. Lukas asked me if I was interested.

And I was.

So, this was what brought me out to live in Central Asia in the first place. It really was a journey into the unknown, and I had absolutely no plan to stay longer than my initial two-year commitment – and definitely not for fifteen years. If I’d known during my student trip along the Silk Road that I would return to live in these countries and get gored by a yak, swim illegally to Afghanistan and back, unsuccessfully smuggle gems, share a cage with a snow leopard, weep with survivors of ethnic cleansing, and get expelled from two countries, I’d have been as surprised at that as the fact that I’d develop a passion for 19th-century Central Asian embroidery.

* Russian term for sedentary Central Asians.

* Meakin, A., In Russian Turkestan (1903), p. 204

PART ONE

The Wool Road

roving

adj

:

roving

constantly moving from one area or place to another.

noun

:

roving

a sliver of cotton, wool, or other fibre, drawn out and slightly twisted, especially preparatory to spinning.

1. TARTAN IN TARTARY

I step into a large, windowless room in the Urumchi museum in Xinjiang on that first trip along the Silk Road to see the museum’s star attraction. Gentle spotlights focus attention on the family that lie before me. There’s a hushed, reverential air, as if no one wants to disturb the rest of those we’ve come to see. Remarkably preserved, they look as if they died mere weeks ago.

They didn’t. This particular family were around at the time of King David.

They are part of a collection of corpses known as the Tarim Basin mummies, although they’re not wrapped in strips of linen or mummified at all. Their incredible preservation is due partly to the desiccating air of the Taklamakan Desert, and partly thanks to the expert way in which the bodies were originally laid to rest over salt flats, allowing air to circulate under them and salt to dry and preserve them. Many of the bodies are so well preserved that the unclothed ones are now displayed with strategically draped modesty cloths.

I wait until a tourist group moves away before I draw closer. Lying on a bed of white felt is a tiny baby, lovingly wrapped in a loosely woven blanket and wearing a snug indigo felt bonnet trimmed with madder red wool, with unspun madder wool stuffed into its tiny nostrils to protect it from cold air. Flat blue pebbles are placed over its eyes and next to it, a milk bottle – the oldest known in the world – made from a sheep’s teat and udder. At roughly three months old – or three thousand years old, depending on your perspective – I find it incredibly moving to witness a life curtailed and yet prolonged for millennia.

The twill blanket has additional overspun threads woven in that writhe and kink to create an unusual decorative detail. It was made from brown sheep wool dyed in madder, giving it a dark plum colour. This same cloth, minus the additional overspun threads, was used to make the robe worn by a tall middle-aged man, possibly the baby’s father. They were found together with several females in Cherchen, an oasis settlement on the south side of the Taklamakan Desert. The man lies with his knees and back bent, but if he stood upright – and it almost appears as if he might wake up and do just that – he’d be two metres tall. His brown hair is flecked with silver. Ochre burial whorls, matching the reddish tinge to his beard, still spiral at his temples.

He wears supple deerskin boots that have worn away in places, revealing puttees beneath made from brightly dyed strips of combed wool. Knitting has yet to be invented, but the puttees wrapped around his feet have naturally felted due to sweat and friction, and now provide a warm insulative layer.

Of the three women, two have badly decayed but the third is better preserved. She is also remarkably tall, and wears a striking scarlet robe with a cashmere sheen to it. Her brown and silver hair has scarlet wool woven into it. The burial chin-strap designed to keep her jaw closed after death had failed, and her mouth now gapes open. Facial reconstructions have been kinder, revealing an oval-shaped face with high forehead, prominent nose, chiselled cheeks and full lips. She’s unmistakeably European. This is a problem. Although we’re in Xinjiang, which means New Province, the communist government is creating a revisionist Han-centric version of history which claims that the first people to settle the Tarim Basin came from the East, not the West.

When these tall, red-haired mummies with prominent noses were first discovered, they soon became emblems of Uighur nationalism. Popular songs were written about them and their reconstructed faces were printed on posters like Bollywood movie stars. In reality, the DNA of Uighurs doesn’t share much with these older inhabitants of the region, but it was enough for Chinese academics who wrote about the mummies to include obligatory warning against the dangers of ethnic separatism and attempts to divide the motherland.

The concept of China’s current borders having always correlated with Han settlement is also somewhat undermined by the very existence of its Great Wall. It was, after all, built specifically to keep out the inhabitants of this region, known as the hairy barbarians, with their blonde beards, blue eyes and tall stature.

Visit Urumchi now – if China will let you – and, along with all the trappings of a dystopian surveillance state, and a systemic oppression of Uighurs akin to Jewish persecution in 1930s Nazi Germany, you’ll find that the old museum has been replaced with a shiny new one. Its star attractions, however, have been relegated to one of the upper floors.

‘We go straight up to the mummies,’ our Uighur guide announced to my tour group on my most recent visit, which was before the persecution had really started to heighten. He headed purposefully for the stairs, waving dismissively at the queue of Han Chinese waiting to enter the ground-floor exhibits. ‘Everything there is just Chinese propaganda.’

We passed a prominent sign in English and Chinese that declared: ‘Xinjiang has been an inalienable part of the territory of China.’ The first floor was dedicated to traditional costumes of the different minorities of Xinjiang, with pictures of happy Uighurs, Kyrgyz, Kazakh and Pamiri living in inter-ethnic harmony. Up another flight of stairs, we found a jumble of glass display cabinets with corpses in them, including more recent Han Chinese in beautiful silk brocades, as well as the Cherchen family, in what seemed like a deliberate attempt at confusing any sort of timeline. The simplicity and beauty of the original exhibit was gone. The bodies had been buried again, but this time among disinformation.

How did these Caucasian people end up living along the rim of the Tarim Basin? The answer may lie in the textiles they wear, which are surprisingly sophisticated for their time. Rather than plain weave, many of the robes and blankets are woven in twill. While plain weave is a case of weft threads going over-under-over-under the warp threads to create a checker-board effect, twill is different. The weaver must go over one warp, then under two, and repeat. This allows the weft threads to nestle closer together, creating a denser, warmer and more durable fabric. It creates the distinctive diagonal ridges you see in fabrics such as denim. In the case of Cherchen Man, his robe is an extended form of twill, with the weft thread going over two warps and then under three, to form a flatter diagonal pattern.

In some of the fabrics, brocaded mountain sheep with impressive horns form the borders of the textile. These additional threads have been added purely for decoration. There are vibrant dyes that remain colourfast to this day. There are painted textiles. And then there are woollen plaid twills, also known as tartan.

While the concept of each clan in Scotland having their own tartan is a Victorian fancy, used now to sell overpriced kilts to American tourists exploring their ancestry, the Celts in general knew the value of thick woollen twills to protect themselves against the elements. They were particularly fond of plaid, making use of stripes in a variety of widths and colours to create enormous variation. Bronze-Age proto-Celts lived in Central Europe before expanding westwards to Gaul, Brittany, Scotland, Wales and Galicia, as well as eastwards, through Thrace and Greece, and possibly a lot further.

Although ancient textiles rarely survive, there are some exceptions. When items of clothing fell into the dimly lit salt mines used by proto-Celts in Hallstatt, near Salzburg, Austria, the salt crystalised around them, giving us a rare glimpse into clothing from that time. From the various scraps found, it appears that a cream background with blue and white plaid stripes was a particularly popular tartan design.

In burial chambers contemporary with the Cherchen family in nearby Hami, tartan twill has also been discovered. The similarities are striking. Both have a similar heddle – that’s the way the fabric handles and feels – and both employ the cream background with blue and white stripes. Given the enormous variety of patterns possible with twill, this similarity suggests a common weaving tradition. As the proto-Celts of Central Europe began to expand rapidly outwards, some may have travelled a lot further east than we previously thought.

How to survive traversing the grass steppes stretching over 5,000 kilometres from the mouth of the Danube in Eastern Europe, all the way to Mongolia and Eastern Siberia? It was too great a journey to complete over one summer, and in winter there were few trees for fuel or natural caves to shelter in. Nomads would have collected dung from their herds and flocks to use as fuel and could milk their animals or slaughter one occasionally to keep themselves fed. Hunting, possibly with hawks or eagles, would have provided further sustenance. Their main issue, though, was surviving the cold.

Woven tents, made with a sturdy blend of goats’ hair and wool, are the most popular nomadic dwelling in the world, found everywhere from Northern Africa to Western Asia. However, the buffeting winter winds of the steppe would blow right through them. These nomads needed to make houses out of wool that were water-repellent, windproof and incredibly insulating, and yet light enough to transport. The only building material that could achieve this was felt.

While Cherchen Man’s puttees had naturally felted, the beautiful felt indigo-dyed bonnet worn by Cherchen Baby was no happy accident. Felting is the most insulating way of using wool. If sheep lanolin is retained during the felt-making process, then felt can be not only water- and wind-resistant but also breathable. Felt has provided shelter to nomads in some of the toughest landscapes of the world.

To understand felting, we first need to explore the structure and origins of wool. Wool – as it turns out – is more of a man-made fibre than I’d realised.

There are at least 260 pure breeds of sheep today, but their DNA can be traced back to just two common ancestors. One of them is the Asiatic mouflon, which can still be found in Eastern Turkey and Western Iran. The other is unknown and became extinct at some point in the past. I’ve seen a mouflon or two in my time and they’re impressive, with males sporting a decent goatee and curly horns. However, their coats are more goat-hide than anything I’d consider woolly. We know that around 10,000 years ago, early humans began to domesticate the animals they’d hunted; it proved far more efficient to take your larder with you, rather than expend energy hunting it. The domestication of the horse allowed humans to keep pace with their livestock, as did domesticated wolves, the precursors to sheepdogs.

Sheep were particularly good candidates for domestication. They aren’t picky eaters, they mature quickly (which suits a nomadic lifestyle), they’re adaptable to different environments and can be found in deserts, valleys or mountains. Crucially, sheep have a social hierarchy, led by the alpha sheep. A shepherd can usurp this role and the sheep will then happily follow a human instead.

According to bone fragments, up until around 8,000 years ago most sheep were slaughtered young, while their meat was still tender. However, shepherds began to learn that there were benefits to keeping their sheep alive for longer. Their dung could be used for fuel and their milk could be shared with humans. Shepherds also noticed how the fur on some proto-sheep hides was thicker than on others. With selective breeding over the next two millennia, these traits were magnified. Sheep became woolly – so much so that most breeds today no longer moult, as yaks, camels or cashmere goats do, but need to be annually sheared each spring.*

Today, nearly all sheep in Europe are white, rather than their original tan or brown, as white fleeces produce the most vibrant colours when dyed. Different breeds produce different kinds of wool. The Karakul sheep, native to Central Asia and found particularly in Southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, has been bred to produce wool with just one crimp per inch, giving it a soft curl that has made its pelts extremely popular. At the other end of the spectrum is Merino, with one hundred crimps per inch. These extra crimps make the wool easier to spin and allow for thinner, finer yarn. Crimps also create pockets of trapped air, making the yarn an excellent insulator.

The importance of wool’s ability to insulate us and keep us warm cannot be overestimated. As naked apes, we’re particularly poorly designed for the cold. Our core body temperature is 37 degrees, but just a 2-degree decrease will lead to hypothermia. If our body temperature reaches 29 degrees, we quite simply die. Not only do we lack fur, we also lack brown fat that other animals – particularly sea mammals – metabolise to create warmth.

So, for humans to survive beyond the tropics, clothing, bedding and shelter is essential. All of these can be made from wool, particularly when it maximises its insulative properties as felt. Wool also has some other near-miraculous qualities:

•Wool has incredible elasticity and can stretch up to 70 times its own length but still return to its original shape. This was one of the qualities that made wool the textile of choice for sails, as they could stretch in the wind and therefore tore less easily.

•Wool has a much higher UV protection rate than cotton and most synthetics.

•Wool has a high nitrogen content, making it virtually fire-retardant. It ignites at a much higher temperature than most other textiles and even then, the flame spreads slowly. It chars rather than melts, making it much safer underclothing for astronauts, firefighters or soldiers. It’s also why carpets on planes or trains are typically made from wool, as they’re far less likely to combust.

•Wool is more hydrophilic than any other natural fibre, which means it can absorb up to 40 per cent of its weight in water without feeling damp to the touch. Not only does this make it an effective insulator even when damp, but when it gets sopping wet, wool releases chemicals that make the wearer feel warmer. This is done through a process of sorption, where wool takes in vapour and generates heat. If you sweat a lot, wool will absorb this and wick it away from the skin. That, and its breathability, make merino running gear the choice of many top athletes.

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