16,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
The easy way to brush up on your English skills Is it good or well? There, their, or they're? Some people don't have to think twice about using proper English, but for the rest of us it can get tricky and confusing. Whether you're writing or speaking, it's all too easy to fall prey to simple mistakes that will represent you in a less-than-desirable light--which can potentially cost you a job or put you in an embarrassing social situation. Avoiding complicated grammar rules, Basic English For Dummies sticks to the basics and makes it easy to get up and running on what you need to know to partake in successful everyday communication, no matter your audience or medium. Inside, you'll find plenty of examples and exercises, guidance on how to structure sentences to make yourself easily understood, and so much more. In no time, you'll leave the 'me or I?' debate at the door and speak and write confidently and correctly. Plus, you'll expand your vocabulary, find the right tone and style you want to convey in your communication, and avoid common English language pitfalls. * Includes quizzes and self-tests * Provides guidance on composing letters, emails, texts, and phone calls * Explains in plain English how to improve your English skills * Gives you instruction and exercises on putting your skills to practice right away If English is your first language, but you missed or have forgotten the nuances that were taught in school, Basic English For Dummies is your go-to guide. It is also ideal for those learning English as a second language.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 507
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015
Ähnliche
Basic English Grammar For Dummies®
Published by: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, www.wiley.com
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Media and software compilation copyright © 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the Publisher. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
Trademarks: Wiley, For Dummies, the Dummies Man logo, Dummies.com, Making Everything Easier, and related trade dress are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
LIMIT OF LIABILITY/DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY: WHILE THE PUBLISHER AND AUTHOR HAVE USED THEIR BEST EFFORTS IN PREPARING THIS BOOK, THEY MAKE NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES WITH RESPECT TO THE ACCURACY OR COMPLETENESS OF THE CONTENTS OF THIS BOOK AND SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIM ANY IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. NO WARRANTY MAY BE CREATED OR EXTENDED BY SALES REPRESENTATIVES OR WRITTEN SALES MATERIALS. THE ADVICE AND STRATEGIES CONTAINED HEREIN MAY NOT BE SUITABLE FOR YOUR SITUATION. YOU SHOULD CONSULT WITH A PROFESSIONAL WHERE APPROPRIATE. NEITHER THE PUBLISHER NOR THE AUTHOR SHALL BE LIABLE FOR DAMAGES ARISING HEREFROM.
For general information on our other products and services, please contact our Customer Care Department within the U.S. at 877-762-2974, outside the U.S. at (001) 317-572-3993, or fax 317-572-4002. For technical support, please visit www.wiley.com/techsupport.
Wiley publishes in a variety of print and electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some material included with standard print versions of this book may not be included in e-books or in print-on-demand. If this book refers to media such as a CD or DVD that is not included in the version you purchased, you may download this material at http://booksupport.wiley.com. For more information about Wiley products, visit HYPERLINK “http://www.wiley.com” www.wiley.com.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015941963
ISBN 978-1-119-06347-6 (pbk); ISBN 978-1-119-06349-0 (ebk);
ISBN 978-1-119-06348-3 (ebk)
Basic English Grammar For Dummies
Visit www.dummies.com/cheatsheet/basicenglishgrammar to view this book's cheat sheet.
Table of Contents
Cover
Introduction
About This Book
Foolish Assumptions
Icons Used in This Book
Beyond the Book
Where to Go From Here
Part I: Getting Started with Basic English Grammar
Chapter 1: Getting a Grip on Grammar
Getting to Know the Elements of Proper English
Building Language, Block by Block: Parts of Speech
Making Sentences
Small but Important: Punctuating, Capitalizing, and Spelling
Facing Everyday Writing Tasks
Chapter 2: Language in Action
Adjusting Language to Suit Your Audience
Getting Help from Spelling and Grammar Checkers
Recognizing Your Grammar Profile
Part II: The Parts of Speech
Chapter 3: People to See, Places to Go, Things to Remember: Recognizing Nouns
Identifying Nouns
Sorting Out Singular and Plural Nouns
Attaching “This,” “These,” and Other Words to Nouns
Chapter 4: Practicing Pronouns
Replacing Nouns with Pronouns
Solving the Case of Pronouns
Forming Possessive Pronouns
Chapter 5: Doing and Being Words: Verbs
Searching Out Verbs
Asking Questions to Find the Verb
Telling Time with Verbs
Recognizing Forms of Some Important Verbs
Getting Assistance from Helping Verbs
Chapter 6: Describing with Adjectives and Adverbs
Adding Detail with Adjectives
Writing Well with Adverbs
Choosing between Adjectives and Adverbs
Placing “a” and “an” in the Proper Place
Making Comparisons with Adjectives and Adverbs
Chapter 7: Little Things Mean a Lot: Prepositions
Recognizing Prepositions
Identifying Objects of Prepositions
Choosing Pronouns as Objects of Prepositions
Placing Prepositional Phrases in the Proper Place
Chapter 8: Joining and Commenting: Conjunctions and Interjections
Linking Ideas with Conjunctions
Identifying Interjections
Part III: Creating Correct Sentences
Chapter 9: Making Progress: Verbs Ending in –
ing
Keeping Time with –ing Verb Forms
Choosing between Simple and Progressive Tenses
Some Help with Spelling –ing Verb Forms
Chapter 10: Revisiting the Past: The Perfect Tenses
Building a Bridge between the Present and the Past: Present Perfect Tense
Placing Events in Order with Past Perfect Tense
Breaking the Rules: Irregular Past Forms
Glancing at the Future Perfect Tense
Chapter 11: Searching for Subjects
Locating the Subject of a Sentence
Matching Subjects and Verbs Properly
Dealing with Tricky Subjects
Chapter 12: Adding Meaning with Complements
Surveying Complements
Choosing the Proper Complement Pronoun
Chapter 13: Finishing the Job: Writing Complete Sentences
Halfway Is Not Enough: Expressing a Complete Thought
Cooking Up a Complete Sentence: The Essential Subject–Verb Pair
Ending Sentences with Proper Punctuation
Changing the Rules for Texting
Part IV: Punctuation and Capitalization
Chapter 14: Small Punctuation Mark, Big Trouble: Apostrophes
Possessed: Using Apostrophes to Show Ownership
Shortening Words with Apostrophes
Avoiding Common Apostrophe Mistakes
Chapter 15: Pausing for a Rest: Commas
The Sound of Silence: Why Commas Matter
Making a List with Commas
Placing Commas before Conjunctions
Placing Commas after Introductory Words
Talking to People: Commas in Direct Address
Chapter 16: Who Said What: Quotation Marks
Telling the Truth with Quotation Marks
Quoting or Paraphrasing: Which Is Better?
Identifying the Source of a Quotation
Adding Punctuation to Quotations
Identifying Titles with Quotation Marks
Chapter 17: Big or Small? When to Write Capital Letters
Knowing the (Capital) ABCs of Capital Letters
Setting Up Sentences with Capital Letters
Naming Names
Mr. Mayor or mr. mayor: Capitalizing Titles
Mom or mom? Capitalizing Family Relationships
Capitalizing Creative Works
Capitalizing Abbreviations
Part V: Grammar in Action
Chapter 18: Writing with Electronic Media
The Unbreakable Rule: Communicating Clearly in Texts, Instant Messages, and Tweets
Writing Proper Emails
Writing for Websites and Social Media
Chapter 19: Presentation Slides and Bulleted Lists
Ladies and Gentlemen, May I Present … Slides!
Writing Bullet Points
Chapter 20: Writing at School and on the Job
A Is for Accomplished: Writing at School
Get to Work: Writing on the Job
Part VI: Common Errors
Chapter 21: Spelling Your Way to Perfection
Following the Rules of English Spelling
Mastering Spelling Demons
Checking the Dictionary for Spelling Help
Chapter 22: Tricky Word Traps
Same Sounds, Different Spelling: Sorting Out Word Pairs
Together or Apart? One- and Two-Word Expressions
Staying Away from Improper Expressions
Chapter 23: Avoiding Common Mistakes
Writing Clear Descriptions
Writing Clear Pronouns
No! No! Understanding Double Negatives
Part VII: The Part of Tens
Chapter 24: Ten Easy Ways to Improve Your Writing Skills
Listening
Reading
Writing
Rewriting
Recognizing Your Weak Spots
Asking for Help
Proofreading
Making Friends with a Dictionary
Using Spelling and Grammar Checkers
Solving Puzzles and Playing Games
Chapter 25: Ten Mistakes to Avoid
Substituting “Me” for “I”
Switching Verb Tenses
Adding Apostrophes to Plurals
Confusing “An” and “A”
Forgetting Endmarks
Pairing “You” with the Wrong Verb
Connecting Sentences with a Comma
Omitting Capital Letters
Using Half a Verb
Being Unclear
About the Author
Cheat Sheet
Advertisement Page
Connect with Dummies
End User License Agreement
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Pages
i
ii
v
vi
vii
viii
ix
x
xi
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
343
344
345
346
347
367
368
369
370
371
372
Introduction
You want to send a letter to your aunt. She is very strict about proper grammar and spelling. This is what you write:
Dear Aunt Louise,
I wanted I would like I want to thank
Thank you for
you’re your’
Thank you for the
presant pressent
gift.
By now, the notepaper is a mess, and so are you. If this sounds like your life, you are not alone. Many people struggle when they must write or speak formally. Fortunately, help is on the way. In fact, it is already here, in the book you are reading.
English grammar is not a mystery. It is a set of traditions and patterns of language handed down through the years. Anyone can learn the rules of Standard English. Basic English Grammar For Dummies explains what you need to know. With practice and the information in this book, you can express yourself confidently and correctly. Even Aunt Louise will be pleased!
About This Book
As I wrote this book, I followed For Dummies traditions. I also made some patterns myself. Every time I introduce a grammar term, I italicize and explain it. If I write noun, for example, I tell you a noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. Do not be afraid! In Basic English Grammar For Dummies, I use very few grammar terms. As often as possible, I explain what you need to know in normal, nonteacher language. I also underline some words or phrases that you should pay close attention to.
To help you pick up important points quickly, I frequently place information in lists. Every item in a list begins with a little check mark. The key idea appears in boldface (extra-dark type). Examples illustrate every rule. Keep an eye out for these examples, centered alone on a line. If I mention an idea but do not explain it immediately, I direct you to a chapter that contains more information.
Although this book focuses on grammar, I could not resist throwing in some vocabulary builders. A strong vocabulary makes your writing more interesting. Look for gray boxes, called sidebars, if you want to learn new words. If your vocabulary is already in good shape, ignore the gray boxes and go right to the text.
Foolish Assumptions
I do not know who you are, but I have already spent some time with you — the reader I imagine. When I write, I keep you, the reader, in my mind. I imagine you holding a yellow For Dummies book or an e-reader. This is how I see you:
You know the language, but you are open to learning more.
You want a firmer grasp of the rules of Standard English, the formal language of educated people.
You are busy. You do not want to waste time memorizing facts you will never need.
You enjoy a little humor.
That is everything I assume about you. Have I described you accurately? I hope so.
Icons Used in This Book
Flip through Basic English Grammar For Dummies. Many little drawings appear in the margin. Those pictures are called icons. Icons alert you in these ways:
This icon signals a shortcut or an extra bit of information. A tip is a whisper in your ear, helping you master a grammar rule.
This icon tells you where errors often pop up, so you can avoid mistakes.
For every topic, you find a few questions labeled with this icon. Take the quizzes to check whether you have mastered the material. Answers follow every quick quiz. (No peeking allowed.)
Key ideas appear with this icon.
Beyond the Book
Like me, you probably spend a lot of time on the Internet. I have placed extra material there, to add to what you find on the screen of your e-reader or between the paper covers of Basic English Grammar For Dummies. Here is what you get, all for free:
Cheat Sheet:
Yes, I know you are honest. You do not cheat on tests or at work. You could use a little help sometimes, though. The Cheat Sheet lists essential information from this book. Print it out and tape it to your desk or put it in your pocket. Glance at the Cheat Sheet at
www.dummies.com/cheatsheet/basicenglishgrammar
when you want to refresh your memory about key grammar rules.
An extra Part of Tens:
All For Dummies books, including this one, end with the Part of Tens. Two chapters in this book explain ten ways to improve your writing skills and ten mistakes that wreck your sentences, respectively. You can read an extra Part of Tens online at
www.dummies.com/extras/basicenglishgrammar
. That one lists ten ways to polish your writing. With this online Part of Tens, you move beyond grammar and into style. You see how to create sophisticated sentences. Like designer clothing, well-made sentences attract positive attention.
Articles:
I love language, and I have more to say about every topic in this book. Plus, the rules of Standard English are not carved in stone. They are changing right now, adapting to new means of communication such as smartphones, tablets, and the like. Fortunately, the Internet gives me space for in-depth discussions of old grammar rules and reports of new developments. Look for articles that tell you a little bit more about parts of speech, parts of a sentence, new media, and other topics. For example, do you know how to combine words and images for a presentation? Would you like to learn whether to capitalize school years, seasons, and historical eras? Check
www.dummies.com/extras/basicenglishgrammar
to find articles on these topics, and more.
Where to Go From Here
You do not have to read Basic English Grammar For Dummies in order. Nor do you have to read the entire book. You can, of course. If you do, you will be my favorite reader.
I realize, however, that you are busy. You probably want to select just what you need. To get started, take a close look at the Table of Contents. Mark off topics that interest or puzzle you. You should also take a look at the table at the end of Chapter 2, which presents common grammar issues and tells you which chapters explain them. Read the chapters you have selected.
Another way to personalize your approach to grammar starts with the quizzes in each chapter. Try some. If you get every question right, feel free to skip that section. (Also, take a moment to pat yourself on the back for a job well done.) If the quiz stumps you, spend some time in that section of the book. Read the explanations, and glance at related material in other chapters.
If you are facing a specific task — a school report or a work presentation, perhaps — turn to Part V. There you find information about common writing formats. Check out the online material, too.
No matter which path you choose to follow through Basic English Grammar For Dummies, you will arrive at the same place. You will be a stronger, more confident writer and speaker.
Part I
Getting Started with Basic English Grammar
For Dummies can help you get started with lots of subjects. Visit www.dummies.com to learn more and do more with For Dummies.
In this part …
Identify the elements of proper English.
Explore the format of everyday writing tasks.
Become familiar with common errors.
Learn when breaking the rules of Standard English is acceptable.
See how to take advantage of computer programs that check your spelling and grammar.
Chapter 1
Getting a Grip on Grammar
In This Chapter
Surveying the basic elements of grammar
Watching out for punctuation and spelling
Coping with everyday writing tasks
Lots of people groan when they hear the word grammar. They think that grammar is just a long list of picky rules. Who cares if you say had gone or went? Why worry about the choice between I and me? These issues can seem silly. Wouldn’t it be better to spend time searching for a cancer cure?
Yes, grammar is often picky. Certainly, the world needs more than grammar — much more! Yet proper language does matter. Rightly or wrongly, many people judge your intelligence and ability based on the way you speak and write. Better jobs and higher grades often go to those who follow the rules. In this chapter, you survey key elements of Standard English — grammar, spelling, and much more.
Getting to Know the Elements of Proper English
When you bake a cake, you need all the right ingredients. If you forget one, the cake is tasteless. English has a number of ingredients, too. You cannot ignore any if you wish to express yourself correctly. Here are the ingredients of proper English:
Parts of speech:
Words are like people. Both base a portion of their identity on the work they do. Words that name people or things, for example, are
nouns.
English teachers call the identity of a word the
part of speech.
Understanding how to select the appropriate part of speech is an important aspect of grammar.
Parts of a sentence:
Words seldom like to be alone. (This is another quality that words and people have in common.) When words join together, they form
sentences.
Complete sentences are essential in formal writing.
Mechanics:
Surprised? Usually, mechanics repair cars and other machines. In language, the term
mechanics
refers to the little things that help readers understand what you mean. Spelling and capitalization are included in mechanics. So is
punctuation,
the placement of periods, commas, question marks, and other symbols. Without proper mechanics, your writing suffers.
Word order:
In English, location partly determines meaning.
The dog bit John
is different from
John bit the dog.
In the first version, the dog is in trouble. In the second, John has a problem. You should know the rules that govern the placement of words.
Word choice:
Some words sound alike (
eye
and
I,
for example). Others are nearly twins (for instance,
affect
and
effect
). Selecting the wrong word can wreck your writing.
Word forms:
Today
I walk.
Yesterday
I walked.
The form of the word
walk
changes to reveal the time period of the action. Knowing the correct form is essential.
These are the main ingredients that cook up proper English.
Did you go to grammar school?
In the Middle Ages, the word grammar meant education. The term applied to all sorts of learning, not just to rules of the language. This old definition lasted a long time. When I was a child, quite a few centuries after the Middle Ages ended, I attended grammar school. I did study English grammar during grades one through eight. I also had lessons in math, history, science, and many other subjects. Now, children enroll in elementary or primary school, not grammar school. Even so, the link between proper English usage and education remains strong.
Building Language, Block by Block: Parts of Speech
According to one survey, the English language includes more than one million words. All those words can be sorted into one of eight boxes: the parts of speech. Take a look at the Big Eight:
Nouns
Pronouns
Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Interjections
Not every box has the same number of words in it. The interjection container is light. The noun and verb containers are huge. The other boxes fall somewhere in between.
Just to give you an idea how these parts of speech look within a sentence, here are some examples. The parts of speech are underlined and labeled:
Nora
likes
algebra
. (
Nora
and
algebra
are nouns.)
I
told
you
the story already. (
I
and
you
are pronouns.)
The baby
shook
the rattle. (
Shook
is a verb.)
Great
speeches require
intense
practice. (
Great
and
intense
are adjectives.)
Glen wrote his name
carefully
and
correctly
. (
Carefully
and
correctly
are adverbs.)
A play
by
that author received great reviews
from
the critics. (
By
and
from
are prepositions.)
Nora
and
Fred like opera,
but
Sal prefers jazz. (
And
and
but
are conjunctions.)
Wow
, those tickets are cheap! (
Wow
is an interjection.)
You may ask, “Why should anyone bother labeling parts of speech?” Good question! Most of the time, you think about the meaning of a word, not its part of speech. Most of the time, your writing is correct. However, some important grammar rules depend upon knowing the difference between one part of speech and another. For example, an adjective is a word that describes people, places, or things. An adverb is also a description, but it cannot do an adjective’s job.
Take a look at these examples. Pay close attention to the underlined words:
WRONG: Today the weather is
beautifully
.
WHY IT IS WRONG:
Beautifully
is not the proper part of speech for this spot in the sentence.
Beautifully
is an adverb. You need an adjective here.
RIGHT: Today the weather is
beautiful
.
WHY IT IS RIGHT: The adjective
beautiful
works well here.
WRONG: Bill and Tina
agenda
the next meeting.
WHY IT IS WRONG:
Agenda
is a noun. You need an action word (a verb).
RIGHT: Bill and Tina
wrote
the agenda for the next meeting.
WHY IT IS RIGHT: The verb
wrote
provides the action.
Agenda
correctly appears as a noun.
WRONG: The puppy lifted
it’s
paw.
WHY IT IS WRONG: You need a pronoun in this spot.
It’s
means “it is.”
RIGHT: The puppy lifted
its
paw.
WHY IT IS RIGHT:
Its
is a pronoun.
WRONG: The rumor spread
threw
the class.
WHY IT IS WRONG:
Threw
is a verb. You should not have an action word here.
RIGHT: The rumor spread
through
the class.
WHY IT IS RIGHT: The verb is gone. In its place you have a preposition, a word that relates ideas. In this sentence, it relates
spread
and
class,
showing where the rumor
spread.
In Part II, you find in-depth information on every part of speech. Well, every part of speech except for interjections. An interjection is a word that briefly comments on the rest of the sentence. Ouch, wow, and oh are interjections. I do not provide in-depth commentary on interjections. They have no depth! They simply add a little interest to your conversation.
Every dictionary tells you the part of speech of the word, usually right in front of the definition. Some words may have several labels, because they change their identity in different sentences. For more information on how to understand every part of a dictionary definition, see Chapter 21.
Small but Important: Punctuating, Capitalizing, and Spelling
Punctuation marks, capital letters, and spelling may seem unimportant. Do not overlook these little things, though. They add more to your writing than you may expect. Take punctuation, for example. Some years ago, senators in a state government debated the placement of a comma for several hours. With the comma, the law had one meaning. Without it, the law was completely different! This section gives you an overview of punctuation, capitalization, and spelling.
Punctuation
I once saw a television show in which something similar to this conversation took place:
Angel (waving a thick stack of paper): I am writing a book.
Angel’s friend (looking at the first page): What is this? I cannot read it. There is no punctuation.
Angel: Oh, I will worry about that stuff later.
Angel’s friend: I do not think so! You need punctuation now!
Angel’s friend is right. You cannot read without punctuation, the little marks that show the reader where to pause, when someone is speaking, and so on. These are the basic punctuation marks that you should know:
Apostrophe: This is a little curved hook above the line. An apostrophe, along with the letter s, shows possession:
Elle
n’s
car (Ellen owns the car.)
the boy
s’
locker room (The locker room belongs to the boys.)
my cousi
n’s
shoes (My cousin owns the shoes.)
the Vice Presiden
t’s
staff (The staff belongs to the Vice President.)
state
s’
rights (The rights belong to the states.)
Apostrophes also shorten words:
Annie does
n’t
ice skate. (Here,
doesn’t
is short for
does not
)
I’m
excited that vacation is finally here. (
I’m
is short for
I am.
)
Olivia could
n’t
go on the roller coaster. (In this sentence,
couldn’t
is short for
could not.
)
Is
n’t
that lemonade too cold? (
Isn’t
is short for
is not.
)
To learn more about apostrophes, turn to Chapter 14.
Period, question mark, exclamation point: These three punctuation marks signal the end of a sentence. A period is a little dot. It follows a sentence that makes a statement. A question mark is made from a curve and a dot. It follows a sentence that asks a question. An exclamation point is a vertical line and a dot. It shows emphasis — the punctuation mark that shouts. Look at these punctuation marks in action:
Mary’s socks are blue. (The period ends the statement.)
Are Tim’s shoes blue also? (The question mark ends the question.)
No, they are not! (The exclamation point adds emphasis.)
To learn more about these three important punctuation marks, see Chapter 13.
Comma: This little curved hook starts on the line and reaches below. A comma tells the reader to pause. Notice the commas in these sentences:
Katie, my friend, is visiting from Chicago.
Katie arrived yesterday, but she has to leave tomorrow.
Chicago, which is in the state of Illinois, is a large city.
Tim, have you ever visited Chicago?
If you read these sentences aloud, you can hear the short silences that appear at each comma. If commas trouble you, check out Chapter 15.
Quotation marks: Quotation marks are pairs of curved marks that appear above the line. Their most common job is to mark off the exact words that someone said or wrote. Notice the quotation marks in these examples:
“Be quiet,” said the librarian.
The children cried, “We were not very loud.”
“In the library,” replied the librarian, “any noise is too loud.”
To use quotation marks properly, you must follow many rules. Turn to Chapter 16 for everything you need to know about quotation marks.
Capitalization
Have you ever seen a very old piece of writing? Capital letters show up in strange places. The Declaration of Independence is more than 200 years old. In the middle of one sentence, you see a famous phrase:
the pursuit of Happiness
These days, happiness would appear in lowercase (noncapitals). The Founders of the country could place a capital wherever they wanted. You do not have the same freedom. You must follow the rules. Glance at these situations, which require capital letters:
Speaker or writer: The pronoun I always refers to the person who is writing. It is always capitalized. Check these examples:
When
I
am asleep,
I
do not snore.
Gene and
I
love to sail on the lake.
Do
I
have to pay extra for my suitcase?
By the way, poets sometimes place the pronoun I in lowercase. Poets break rules whenever they wish. Outside of a poem, however, use a capital letter for I.
First word in a sentence: A capital letter begins every sentence. The letter serves as a signal that one sentence has ended and another has begun. Read these examples:
N
ana sings to the baby.
S
he has a terrible voice!
T
he baby does not mind.
H
e loves her anyway.
P
alm trees grow in my yard.
W
arm weather suits them.
R
ain storms water the trees.
T
hey require little care.
Are you curious about numbers? You cannot capitalize 22 or 15 or any numeral. So what happens when a number appears at the beginning of a sentence? Good question! The answer is that you should not begin a sentence with a numeral. If you need a number there, use the word:
WRONG: 22 people live in that building.
RIGHT: Twenty-two people live in that building.
Names:
I am
Geraldine Woods,
not
geraldine woods.
Nearly all names require capital letters. (Some companies choose lowercase letters for products. The
iPad
is an example of a name that does not begin with a capital letter.)
Of course, these are not the only rules that govern capital letters. Turn to Chapter 17 for more information.
Spelling
In silly television shows, spell is a magic word. In grammar, spell is also a magic word. Spelling — placing every letter in the right spot — is important. Take a close look at the following paragraph. Can you identify five misspelled words?
Jenny enjoys sewing. She pushs the needle into the cloth with her thum. Tina, who is makeing a new skirt, offen chats with Jenny wen they sew.
Before you check your answers, think for a moment. The preceding paragraph contains proper sentences. It clearly states the facts. Yet it is not a good piece of writing. The misspelled words turn a good paragraph into a bad one. Here are the correctly spelled words: pushes, thumb, making, often, when.
In Chapter 21, you find some rules for English spelling. Unfortunately, many, many English words do not follow those rules. To check your spelling, you may need help from the dictionary. Chapter 21 also explains how to understand and use the dictionary.
Many words sound the same but have different spelling and meaning. Other words are nearly alike in appearance or sound, but their definitions are not alike. Check Chapter 22 for help with these confusing words.
Facing Everyday Writing Tasks
Do you spend a lot of time sitting at a desk? If you do, you probably face writing tasks such as these:
School assignments:
You write an essay on an exam or for homework. You answer questions basked on a reading assignment. Perhaps you have to write a book review or a lab report. Your teacher may ask for a research paper or a short story. All these writing jobs call for good grammar. All follow patterns that are easy to learn. Knowing proper English and formatting will raise your grades.
Work-related writing:
You send a memo to your co-workers or to your supervisor. The boss wants a report or a presentation. Perhaps it is your responsibility to answer emails or letters from customers. In the business world, good writing is expected — and often rewarded. Grammar rules apply to every writing task in the working world. Knowing the best format for each type of writing is also important.
Personal writing:
Outside of school and work, you may write a note to a friend. Perhaps you must send a letter to a landlord or a government official. You probably email or text friends and family members. In many situations, informal language and nonstandard grammar are fine. In others, you need your best writing skills.
When you face an everyday writing task, you should understand the rules and traditions that apply to it. Chapters 18, 19, and 20 tell you everything you need to complete your writing work easily and effectively. Explanations of the newer forms of communication — texts and slide presentations, for example — appear in these chapters also.
Sometimes it is fine to bend the rules of grammar and to use informal language. For example, would you send this text to a friend?
Would you accompany me to the cafeteria at your earliest convenience?
Or, is this your reply when your friend asks, “Who’s there?”
It is I.
If you answered “yes,” you probably eat alone and receive very few phone calls. With friends, proper grammar may turn a fun social occasion into something more formal. To find out more about when proper English is required and when you should relax the rules, see Chapter 2.
Mom and Dad
Because the ancient Romans once ruled a huge empire, babies are born in maternity wards. For the same reason, fathers may take a paternity test to prove that they are, indeed, fathers. These words come from Latin, the language of ancient Rome. Mater and matr are word parts associated with motherhood. Pater and patri are word parts associated with fatherhood. Here are some members of this word family:
Maternity means “motherhood.” “Pregnant women go to the maternity ward.”A matriarch is the “female head of a family.” “The aunts and uncles often went to Great Grandmother, the matriarch, for advice.”Maternal means “motherly, relating to the mother.” “Her maternal feelings grew as she held her new baby.”A matron is “a married woman, a woman in charge of children.” “The children in the audience were afraid of the matron, who watched them carefully.”Paternity means “fatherhood.” “The paternity test showed that he was the baby’s father.”A patriarch is the “male head of a family.” “Every Sunday, they had dinner with Oliver, the patriarch of their family.”Paternal means “fatherly, relating to the father.” “Her paternal grandfather was ill, so she immediately flew to Florida, where her father’s family lived.”Keep your eye out for “mom and dad” words as you read. Add any you find to your personal vocabulary list.
Chapter 2
Language in Action
In This Chapter
Choosing the correct level of formality
Using computer programs and smartphone apps to improve your writing
Identifying your grammar strengths and weaknesses
English, like every language, has plenty of rules. In some situations, you must follow all the rules. In other situations, you can break a few rules. Yes, I am a grammarian. Even so, I believe that some rules are meant to be broken in some situations.
In this chapter, I explain when proper English is necessary and when it is not. I also explain how to use computer and smartphone programs to improve your command of English. Finally, in this chapter you find a checklist, so you can make a personal grammar improvement plan.
Adjusting Language to Suit Your Audience
Sometimes people speak of good and bad English. I stay away from those terms. I do not like them, because I do not believe that they are accurate. I prefer the label Standard English for speech and writing that follows every rule. Any other level of English breaks some rules.
You may wonder what other levels of English exist. You may also worry about learning them. You have no reason to be concerned, though. You already speak and write. You already know the language on some level.
For convenience, I sort English into three levels of formality. Take a look at this message, sent three different ways:
Gotta go. Wanna come?
I have to go. Do you feel like coming with me?
I must leave. Would you like to accompany me?
These examples climb the stairs of language. Each step is a bit more formal. The first statement, the basement of English, is the sort of language people use when they are chatting with friends. I call this level friendspeak. (This is not an official term. I made it up.) The second level is also friendly, but the sentences follow more rules that those in the first. I call this level conversational English. The third example is grammatically correct. The language hits the highest level of formality. This level is Standard English. The name, which many English teachers use, comes from the fact that a standard is a rule. Standard English obeys every rule. In this section, you examine each level of language.
You may not yet know every rule of Standard English. Therefore, it may be hard at first for you to see the difference between one level of English and another. Do not worry. As you work your way through Basic English Grammar For Dummies, the rules will become clear.
Friendspeak
When you relax, you probably change your clothes. You take off your school or business outfit. You put on comfortable clothing. Sweats and an old t-shirt signal that you have no obligations. You can do whatever you like. You are in charge. Language works the same way. Friendspeak, my term for the language you use when you are off duty, shows that it is time for fun.
Friendspeak works well when the power level is balanced. The people you are talking with or writing to are your peers. Look at these two conversations. Both actually took place in my classroom:
STUDENT to TEACHER: He and I went to the gym. He did 60 push-ups. I can’t do as many push-ups as he can.
TEACHER to STUDENT: He exercises regularly. That’s why he is strong.
SAME STUDENT to ANOTHER STUDENT: Me and him went to the gym. He did 60 push-ups, and I’m like, no way.
OTHER STUDENT: Dude, he like, lives in the gym.
These two conversations say the same thing, but not in the same way. In speaking with a teacher, the student knows that he should follow the rules. The teacher also follows grammar rules. Why? The teacher–student relationship is a formal one. In the second conversation, breaking the rules is the point. The original speaker shows that he and the other student have nothing to prove to each other. They are comfortable with each other’s mistakes. In fact, they make mistakes on purpose, to show that they have a personal, friendly relationship.
Excellent grammar usually gives you an advantage in life. When you speak with friends, though, perfectly proper sentences may sound snobby. For this reason, more casual language (either friendspeak or conversational English, which I cover in the next section) is sometimes more suitable than Standard English.
I do not deal with friendspeak in this book. Chances are, you already know it. This level of language is fine in these situations:
Talking with friends
Chatting with close family members, especially those who are the same age
Writing to friends in emails and texts
Many people use this level of English for posts on social media. This practice sounds harmless. After all, you are writing to people who, on that website, are your friends. Be careful! Employers and school officials sometimes check social media when they are considering your application for a job or for admission to a school. True, they understand that you are not aiming for perfect grammar when you post. However, if you come across as offensive or ignorant, you may hurt your chances for acceptance.
Employ friendspeak only when you are sure that the people you are addressing are comfortable with this type of language.
Conversational English
One step higher on the ladder of correct language is conversational English. Instead of sweats and t-shirts, think of conversational English as well-fitting jeans and a reasonably nice shirt. The language is comfortable, but not as messy as friendspeak. Conversational English is the language just about everyone uses for — surprise! — conversations. In this level of language, the people speaking probably know each other. They relax, but not completely.
I use conversational English in this book. As I write, I imagine that I am speaking with you, the reader. I pretend that I know you and that we are spending some free time together. I do not see myself as a teacher in a formal classroom situation.
Conversational English is suitable for these situations:
Chats with friends and family
Conversations with neighbors and other acquaintances
Notes, emails, instant messages, letters, and texts to friends and family
Comments posted on social media
Informal conversations with teachers
Remarks to co-workers
The last two items on this list are tricky. In a school or business situation, you can be friendly, but not too friendly. Suppose a teacher is in the middle of a lesson. In this situation, do not employ conversational English. Questions and remarks during class are best phrased in Standard English. If you are chatting with a teacher after class, though, you do not need formal language. At work, conversational English is fine for lunch and coffee breaks. During meetings at work, you should be more careful to follow the rules of grammar.
At work or at school, check the level of language before you speak. How formal are others’ remarks? Listen, and adapt your own language to match the group’s preferred style.
Standard English
Standard English is similar to the clothing you select when you want to look your best. Imagine a business suit or an outfit you would wear to a dinner party. When you employ Standard English, your readers or listeners grasp that you know the rules of grammar. You demonstrate that you have a strong vocabulary.
You should speak and write in Standard English when you are addressing someone who has more power and authority than you do. This level of English adds dignity to every interaction. It signals that you are taking things seriously and putting forth your best effort. Use Standard English for these situations:
Business letters
Emails to clients or colleagues
Letters to the editor or to government officials
Written reports (on paper or on websites)
Memos
Homework assignments
Notes or emails to teachers
Speeches, presentations, and oral reports
Important conversations (job interviews, admissions interviews, and the like)
In any situation in which you are being judged, begin with Standard English. You can always ease up if you discover that your reader or listener prefers a different, less formal style.
In the preceding section, perhaps add “or emails.” Many students today communicate with their teachers via email. (Mine do all the time, and most of the time their grammar is atrocious!)
You have to know the rules of Standard English before you decide that it is okay to break them. As you read Basic English Grammar For Dummies, keep track of the rules. Practice, so you can be perfect when the need arises.
Check whether you understand the right level of English for every situation. In the first column is a remark. The second column identifies the audience for the remark. Fill in the third column.
Remark
Listener or Reader
Suitable? Not Suitable?
1. Wanna explain that again?
math professor
2. I did not answer the customer yet.
supervisor at work
3. A little help, please!
your cousin
4. He’s gotta ton of work now.
customer
5. Profits and losses should be posted today.
co-worker
Here are the answers: 1. not suitable 2. suitable 3. suitable 4. not suitable 5. suitable.
How sick is your grammar?
No, I am not talking about a sore throat. I am not checking whether you have to visit the doctor. Instead, I am using a slang word. Sick, which usually means not healthy, means awesome or fun in slang. Slang is language that a group uses to talk with each other. In fact, the group creates slang. Few outside the group understand it. That quality is the whole purpose of slang. When you make up words, you unite the group. You push others away because they do not know what you are saying. Once a slang word becomes widely known, it loses its purpose. The old word drops away, and a new slang term takes its place.
Because slang changes quickly, you must be very careful in using it. Remember, people outside the group will not understand you. Inside the group, you have to keep up. Slang that works today may be outdated by tomorrow. You will not sound cool (an older slang word). You will sound old-fashioned.
Needless to say (though I am going to say it anyway!), slang is not the right choice when you are speaking to anyone in authority. Keep slang out of business and school settings. It is for fun events only.
Getting Help from Spelling and Grammar Checkers
Do you type on a computer or a smartphone? If so, you write with a word processing program. This sort of program allows you to type, delete, and insert words. It also checks spelling and grammar. When you are typing, you probably see a wavy red line or another signal when you spell a word incorrectly. If you make a grammar mistake, a green line or something else pops up.
Spelling and grammar checkers can be helpful. If I type teh instead of the, I may not notice the error. The computer’s alert helps me see the mistake. Then I can type the correctly.
However, these checkers carry risks. Here are some of them:
Spelling checkers are loaded with lists of properly spelled English words. Not every word is on the list. If you try to correct every error that the program flags, you may make unnecessary changes. Check the dictionary if you think a word identified as wrong is actually correct.
You can add words to the program’s dictionary. For example, every time I type smartphone, the computer underlines it. If I type smart phone, the computer accepts my spelling. However, smartphone is now the accepted term for phones that act as mini-computers. To avoid the red line, I have to add smartphone to the program’s list of acceptable words.
Check the help function of the program you use for word processing. Follow the directions to add words to the program’s dictionary.
Spelling programs cannot tell the difference between words that sound alike, such as
hole
and
whole.
If you write
hymn
(a religious song) instead of
him
(a word referring to a male), the computer accepts the mistake. (For help with these word pairs and other words often used incorrectly, see
Chapter 22
.)
Many computer programs have an
autocorrect
function. The computer sees
aslo
and turns it into
also
automatically. Autocorrect is great — when it is right. When it is wrong, you end up with a message you never intended. For example, once autocorrect changed
I don’t
into
Idiot
. The person who received the text was not happy to be addressed as an idiot! You can usually turn off autocorrect on your phone or computer. If you leave it on, check everything. Correct the corrections if you see a mistake!
Most spelling and grammar programs have language and country settings. If you have the wrong setting, the program will find many errors that do not exist; it will not detect many actual mistakes. Be sure to select the right language and country before you begin to write.
Grammar checkers detect some mistakes, but they do not catch everything. For example, if I type
He do the work.
the computer accepts the sentence. The proper sentence is
He does the work.
Computers are not as smart as people. Use your own knowledge of grammar to write properly.
The dictionary is the final authority when it comes to spelling. However, it is hard to look up a word if you don’t know how to spell it. Here is where computer programs can help. If you have the right app (program) on your phone or tablet, you can say the word, which then pops up on the screen. Before you accept the spelling, take a look at the definition. Be sure the definition matches your intended meaning.
No program is perfect. Check spelling with a dictionary. Proofread your work to catch and fix grammar errors.
Recognizing Your Grammar Profile
No one else in the universe is exactly like you. Even your identical twin, if you have one, differs from you in some way. Your biology and experiences are unique. So is your grammar profile. Some parts of grammar you know very well. Other aspects of grammar may puzzle you. When you are writing a sentence with many descriptions, for example, you may wonder where to place them. Perhaps pronouns are your personal devils. Your strengths and weaknesses form your grammar profile.
Table 2-1
