Design of Unmanned Aerial Systems E-Book

Mohammad H. Sadraey

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Aerospace Series (PEP)
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1187

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Beschreibung

Provides a comprehensive introduction to the design and analysis of unmanned aircraft systems with a systems perspective Written for students and engineers who are new to the field of unmanned aerial vehicle design, this book teaches the many UAV design techniques being used today and demonstrates how to apply aeronautical science concepts to their design. Design of Unmanned Aerial Systems covers the design of UAVs in three sections--vehicle design, autopilot design, and ground systems design--in a way that allows readers to fully comprehend the science behind the subject so that they can then demonstrate creativity in the application of these concepts on their own. It teaches students and engineers all about: UAV classifications, design groups, design requirements, mission planning, conceptual design, detail design, and design procedures. It provides them with in-depth knowledge of ground stations, power systems, propulsion systems, automatic flight control systems, guidance systems, navigation systems, and launch and recovery systems. Students will also learn about payloads, manufacturing considerations, design challenges, flight software, microcontroller, and design examples. In addition, the book places major emphasis on the automatic flight control systems and autopilots. * Provides design steps and procedures for each major component * Presents several fully solved, step-by-step examples at component level * Includes numerous UAV figures/images to emphasize the application of the concepts * Describes real stories that stress the significance of safety in UAV design * Offers various UAV configurations, geometries, and weight data to demonstrate the real-world applications and examples * Covers a variety of design techniques/processes such that the designer has freedom and flexibility to satisfy the design requirements in several ways * Features many end-of-chapter problems for readers to practice Design of Unmanned Aerial Systems is an excellent text for courses in the design of unmanned aerial vehicles at both the upper division undergraduate and beginning graduate levels.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Preface

Definitions

Objectives

Approach

Outline

Quadcopters

Unit System

Acknowledgment

Acronyms

Nomenclature

Greek Symbols

Subscripts

About the Companion Website

1 Design Fundamentals

1.1 Introduction

1.2 UAV Classifications

1.3 Review of a Few Successful UAVs

1.4 Design Project Planning

1.5 Decision Making

1.6 Design Criteria, Objectives, and Priorities

1.7 Feasibility Analysis

1.8 Design Groups

1.9 Design Process

1.10 Systems Engineering Approach

1.11 UAV Conceptual Design

1.12 UAV Preliminary Design

1.13 UAV Detail Design

1.14 Design Review, Evaluation, Feedback

1.15 UAV Design Steps

Questions

2 Preliminary Design

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Maximum Takeoff Weight Estimation

2.3 Weight Buildup

2.4 Payload Weight

2.5 Autopilot Weight

2.6 Fuel Weight

2.7 Battery Weight

2.8 Empty Weight

2.9 Wing and Engine Sizing

2.10 Quadcopter Configuration

Questions

Problems

3 Design Disciplines

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Aerodynamic Design

3.3 Structural Design

3.4 Propulsion System Design

3.5 Landing Gear Design

3.6 Mechanical and Power Transmission Systems Design

3.7 Electric Systems

3.8 Control Surfaces Design

3.9 Safety Analysis

3.10 Installation Guidelines

Questions

Design Questions

Problems

4 Aerodynamic Design

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Fundamentals of Aerodynamics

4.3 Wing Design

4.4 Tail Design

4.5 Vertical Tail Design

4.6 Fuselage Design

4.7 Antenna

4.8 Aerodynamic Design of Quadcopters

4.9 Aerodynamic Design Guidelines

Questions

Problems

5 Fundamentals of Autopilot Design

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Dynamic Modeling

5.3 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

5.4 Simplification Techniques of Dynamic Models

5.5 Fixed‐Wing UAV Dynamic Models

5.6 Dynamic Model Approximation

5.7 Quadcopter (Rotary‐Wing) Dynamic Model

5.8 Autopilot Categories

5.9 Flight Simulation – Numerical Methods

5.10 Flying Qualities for UAVs

5.11 Autopilot Design Process

Questions

Problems

6 Control System Design

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Fundamentals of Control Systems

6.3 Servo/Actuator

6.4 Flight Control Requirements

6.5 Control Modes

6.6 Controller Design

6.7 Autonomy

6.8 Manned–Unmanned Aircraft Teaming

6.9 Control System Design Process

Questions

Problems

7 Guidance System Design

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Fundamentals

7.3 Guidance Laws

7.4 Command Guidance Law

7.5 PN Guidance Law

7.6 Pursuit Guidance Law

7.7 Waypoint Guidance Law

7.8 Sense and Avoid

7.9 Formation Flight

7.10 Motion Planning and Trajectory Design

7.11 Guidance Sensor – Seeker

7.12 Guidance System Design

Questions

Problems

8 Navigation System Design

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Classifications

8.3 Coordinate Systems

8.4 Inertial Navigation System

8.5 Kalman Filtering

8.6 Global Positioning System

8.7 Position Fixing Navigation

8.8 Navigation in Reduced Visibility Conditions

8.9 Inertial Navigation Sensors

8.10 Navigation Disturbances

8.11 Navigation System Design

Questions

Problems

9 Microcontroller

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Basic Fundamentals

9.3 Microcontroller Circuitry

9.4 Embedded Systems

9.5 Microcontroller Programming

9.6 Programming in C

9.7 Arduino

9.8 Open‐Source Commercial Autopilots

9.9 Design Procedure

9.10 Design Project

Questions

Problems

10 Launch and Recovery Systems Design

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Launch Technologies and Techniques

10.3 Launcher Equipment

10.4 Fundamentals of Launch

10.5 Elevation Mechanism Design

10.6 VTOL

10.7 Recovery Technologies and Techniques

10.8 Recovery Fundamentals

10.9 Launch/Recovery Systems Mobility

10.10 Launch and Recovery Systems Design

Questions

Problems

Design Projects

11 Ground Control Station

11.1 Introduction

11.2 GCS Subsystems

11.3 Types of Ground Stations

11.4 GCS of a Number of UAVs

11.5 Human‐Related Design Requirements

11.6 Support Equipment

11.7 GCS Design Guidelines

Questions

Problems

Design Problems

12 Payloads Selection/Design

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Elements of Payload

12.3 Payloads of a Few UAVs

12.4 Cargo or Freight Payload

12.5 Reconnaissance/Surveillance Payload

12.6 Scientific Payloads

12.7 Military Payloads

12.8 Electronic Counter Measure Payloads

12.9 Payload Installation

12.10 Payload Control and Management

12.11 Payload Selection/Design Guidelines

Questions

Problems

Design Problems

13 Communications System Design

13.1 Fundamentals

13.2 Data Link

13.3 Transmitter

13.4 Receiver

13.5 Antenna

13.6 Radio Frequency

13.7 Encryption

13.8 Communications Systems of a Few UAVs

13.9 Installation

13.10 Communications System Design

13.11 Bi‐directional Communications Using Arduino Boards

Questions

Problems

Laboratory Experiments

Design Projects

14 Design Analysis and Feedbacks

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Design Feedbacks

14.3 Weight and Balance

14.4 Stability Analysis

14.5 Controllability Analysis

14.6 Flight Performance Analysis

14.7 Cost Analysis

Questions

Problems

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

(UAVs) classification.

Table 1.2

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

(UAV) registration coverage.

Table 1.3 Characteristics of a number of

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

(UAVs).

Table 1.4 Design objectives.

Table 1.5 Three scenarios of priorities (in percent) for a military

Unmanned A

...

Table 1.6

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(UAV) major components and their functions.

Table 1.7

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(UAV) major components with design alternatives...

Table 1.8 Relationship between

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(UAV) major components ...

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Payloads weight ratio of several

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

(UAVs).

Table 2.2 Weights for a number of

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(UAV) payloads.

Table 2.3 Mass of a few commercial autopilot and

Inertial navigation system

(I...

Table 2.4 Typical segment weight fractions.

Table 2.5 Typical electric power consumptions for non‐cruise segments.

Table 2.6 Typical values for a number of parameters for a fixed‐wing

Unmanned

...

Table 2.7 The coefficients “a” and “b” for the empirical equation of (2.34).

Table 2.8

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(UAV) Radar and support equipment weight breakd...

Table 2.9 Technical features of a typical quadcopter.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1

Unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV) major components and their functions.

Table 3.2 Propulsion systems of a number of

Unmanned aerial vehicles

(UAVs).

Table 3.3 Landing gear of a number of

Unmanned aerial vehicles

(UAVs).

Table 3.4

Unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV) radar and support equipment power breakdo...

Table 3.5 Technical features of some rechargeable batteries.

Table 3.6 Control surface configuration optionssco.

Table 3.7 Reliability and mishap rates for several manned/unmanned aircraft.

Chapter 4

Table 4.1

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(UAV) aerodynamic components and their function...

Table 4.2 Fuselage geometry of a number of

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

(UAVs).

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Comparison technical between features of a human pilot and of an au...

Table 5.2 Autopilot categories.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Features of two types of servos.

Table 6.2 Autopilot inner loops.

Table 6.3 Schedules of gains for a long flight.

Table 6.4 Values of two roll derivatives at each flight condition.

Table 6.5 Values two optimal gains at each flight condition.

Table 6.6 Typical deficiencies of a system and the suitable compensator to co...

Chapter 7

Table 7.1 Flight and control variables in four subsystems.

Table 7.2 Typical onboard obstacle detection sensors and their features.

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 Classification of navigation systems developed for

Unmanned aerial v

...

Table 8.2 WGS 84 defining parameters.

Table 8.3 Primary functions of a few navigation sensors.

Table 8.4 Accelerometers and their outputs.

Table 8.5 Gyros and their outputs.

Chapter 9

Table 9.1 Elements which sends/receive signals/commands to/from microcontroll...

Table 9.2 A comparison between a microprocessor and a microcontroller.

Table 9.3 Functions in Arduino programming.

Table 9.4 Elements to structure an Arduino program.

Table 9.5 Characteristics of MicroPilot MP21283X autopilot.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Friction coefficient for threaded pairs.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Number of human operators in

ground control station

(GCS) of a numb...

Table 11.2 Suggested values for the geometry of a pilot/operator console.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Illuminance levels at different lighting conditions.

Table 12.2 Technical features of a number of commercial cameras.

Table 12.3 Lincoln Lab radar parameters.

Table 12.4 Characteristics of the

unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV) radar waveform...

Table 12.5 Garmin GSX 70 radar used in Global Hawk.

Table 12.6 Features of a number of commercial range finders.

Table 12.7 Optical features of the range finder BOD 63 M‐LA04‐S115.

Table 12.8 Features of a TMP37 temperature sensor.

Table 12.9 Drag coefficient values for various geometries and shapes.

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Commonly used frequency bands in communications.

Table 13.2 Typical radio frequencies for a large

unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV)...

Table 13.3 Weight and electric power of a few components of Global Hawk commu...

Table 13.4 Technical specifications of a NRF24L01 module

Table 13.5 Connections of pins of an NRF24L01 module to an Arduino Uno

Table 13.6 Connection of pins of NRF24L01 module, potentiometer, and servo to...

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Typical weight and balance table.

Table 14.2 Static longitudinal and lateral‐directional stability requirements...

Table 14.3 Longitudinal stability derivatives.

Table 14.4 Lateral‐directional stability derivatives.

Table 14.5 Typical values for longitudinal, lateral and directional control d...

Table 14.6 Cost of

small unmanned aircraft system

(

sUAS

) equipment deployed ab...

Table 14.7 Acquisition cost of some

small unmanned aircraft systems

(

sUAS

) for...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Yamaha RMAX unmanned helicopter.

Figure 1.2 Global Hawk.

Figure 1.3 Lockheed Martin RQ‐170 Sentinel.

Figure 1.4 Epson micro flying robot.

Figure 1.5

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(UAV) main design groups.

Figure 1.6 The

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(UAV) life‐cycle.

Figure 1.7 Design process and formal design reviews.

Figure 1.8

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(UAV) conceptual design.

Figure 1.9 Trade‐off analysis process.

Figure 1.10 Preliminary design procedure.

Figure 1.11 Detail design sequence.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 F4 (V3) Omnibus Flight Controller (Dimensions: 30.5 mm × 30.5 mm)...

Figure 2.2 Typical mission profile for a remotely controlled

Unmanned Aerial

...

Figure 2.3 Matching plot for a prop‐driven fixed‐wing

Unmanned Aerial Vehicl

...

Figure 2.4 Matching plot for a fixed‐wing jet

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(UAV)....

Figure 2.5 Quadcopter configuration.

Figure 2.6 Quadcopter DJI Phantom 4 Pro.

Figure 2.7 Matching plot for example problem 2.4.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Main spar and rib.

Figure 3.2 A typical cross‐section of a low distortion radome.

Figure 3.3 Insitu ScanEagle on a ground launcher.

Figure 3.4 Wiring diagram of an instrumented Yamaha RMAX unmanned helicopter...

Figure 3.5 Convention for positive deflections of control surfaces (Back‐vie...

Figure 3.6 Primary control surfaces

Figure 3.7 Axes and positive rotations convention.

Figure 3.8 Control surfaces design process.

Figure 3.9 Flight control systems with conventional control surfaces.

Figure 3.10

National Administration for Aeronautics and Astronautics

(

NASA

) ...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Aerodynamic lift, drag, and pitching moment.

Figure 4.2 Wing design procedure.

Figure 4.3 A 6‐series

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

(

NACA

) 63

3

Figure 4.4 Typical variations of

C

l

versus

C

d

for a laminar airfoil.

Figure 4.5 Mean Aerodynamic Chord and Aerodynamic Center in a straight wing....

Figure 4.6 Tail design flowchart.

Figure 4.7 C

l

‐α, C

m

‐α, and C

d

‐C

l

graphs of

National Advisory Committee for A

...

Figure 4.8 The vertical tail parameters.

Figure 4.9 Internal arrangement of a HALE UAV, and a high‐speed combat

Unman

...

Figure 4.10 X‐45A UCAV. By NASA/Dryden Flight Research Center/Jim Ross.

Figure 4.11 Typical low drag, low distortion radome.

Figure 4.12

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(UAV) aerodynamic design flowchart.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Control, guidance and navigation systems in an autopilot.

Figure 5.2 A basic closed‐loop system.

Figure 5.3 Classes of dynamic models.

Figure 5.4 Aerodynamic axes, forces and moments.

Figure 5.5 Effect of directional motion on lateral motion.

Figure 5.6 Effect of lateral motion on directional motion.

Figure 5.7 Direction of propeller rotation for each motor (Top‐view).

Figure 5.8 Lift and thrust forces (side‐view with a pitch angle); wind‐axis ...

Figure 5.9 Variations of thrust of a small electric motor versus its rotatio...

Figure 5.10 Variations of torque of a small electric motor versus its rotati...

Figure 5.11 Block diagram of a yaw damper.

Figure 5.12 General Atomics MQ‐9 Reaper.

Figure 5.13 Three options of interest for a continuous decrease of the lift ...

Figure 5.14 NASA ALTUS II.

Figure 5.15 Ground‐based equipment simulator.

Figure 5.16 Results of simulation.

Figure 5.17 Autopilot design process.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 Block diagram of a closed‐loop control system.

Figure 6.2 Block diagram of a control system including disturbance and noise...

Figure 6.3 Control system design techniques.

Figure 6.4 Bode diagram of system given in example 6.1.

Figure 6.5 State‐feedback control configuration.

Figure 6.6 Series‐feedback compensation (

two‐degree of freedom

(

2DOF

))...

Figure 6.7 Time‐scaled flight control system architecture.

Figure 6.8 Sketch of a servomechanism for an elevator.

Figure 6.9 Scheme of the control surface actuator.

Figure 6.10 A typical operational flight envelope.

Figure 6.11 Flight control system with conventional control surfaces.

Figure 6.12 Block diagram of an altitude control system.

Figure 6.13 Block diagram of a pitch‐attitude control system.

Figure 6.14 Block diagram of a pitch angle control system with two feedbacks...

Figure 6.15 Block diagram of bank angle control system.

Figure 6.16 Block diagram of a bank angle control system with two feedbacks....

Figure 6.17 Block diagram of a yaw damper (control system).

Figure 6.18 Block diagram of localizer hold mode.

Figure 6.19 Block diagram of a turn coordinator.

Figure 6.20 Resulting block diagram for the turn coordinator.

Figure 6.21 Resulting block diagram for the turn coordinator.

Figure 6.22 Root locus for the turn coordinator.

Figure 6.23 Response of the turn coordinator for a step aileron input.

Figure 6.24 The control system of example 6.3.

Figure 6.25 Simulink model of the closed‐loop system.

Figure 6.26 The response of the system to a unit step input.

Figure 6.27 Quadratic optimal regulator system for a two‐state model.

Figure 6.28 Wing leveler quadratic optimal regulator system.

Figure 6.29 The wing bank angle response to an impulse input.

Figure 6.30 Closed‐loop system with additive and multiplicative perturbation...

Figure 6.31 Digital control system.

Figure 6.32 Functional block diagram of a teaming flight operation.

Figure 6.33

Unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV)‐Leader, manned‐aircraft‐follower t...

Figure 6.34 Manned‐aircraft‐leader,

Unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV)‐follower t...

Figure 6.35 Decision making process for pilot as the follower of an

Unmanned

...

Figure 6.36 Communication between manned and unmanned aircraft.

Figure 6.37 Control system design process.

Figure 6.38 Arcturus T‐20

Unmanned aerial vehicle

(

UAV

).

Figure 6.39 Required trajectory.

Figure 6.40 The descent and landing trajectory.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 Control, guidance, and navigation systems in an autopilot.

Figure 7.2 A case where a guidance system is required.

Figure 7.3 Major subsystems of a

unmanned aerial vehicle

(

UAV

) guidance syst...

Figure 7.4 Graphical representation of three basic guidance laws.

Figure 7.5

Line‐of‐sight

(

LOS

)(Top view).

Figure 7.6 Three major blocks of a guidance system.

Figure 7.7 Block diagram of the command

line of sight

(

LOS

) guidance system....

Figure 7.8 Geometry of the

unmanned aerial vehicle

(

UAV

) and target aircraft...

Figure 7.9

Unmanned aerial vehicle

(

UAV

)‐target engagement geometry.

Figure 7.10 Geometry of the

unmanned aerial vehicle

(

UAV

) and target aircraf...

Figure 7.11 Pursuit guidance against a moving target.

Figure 7.12 Predefined waypoints and desired trajectory.

Figure 7.13 Guidance algorithm scheme (Top‐view).

Figure 7.14 No corrections region, and cross‐track error and reference dista...

Figure 7.15 Hazard detection systems classification.

Figure 7.16 Two collision avoiding maneuvers (top‐view).

Figure 7.17 Collision geometry (Top‐view).

Figure 7.18 Simulation results for

unmanned aerial vehicle

(

UAV

) and aircraf...

Figure 7.19 Leader‐follower

unmanned aerial vehicle

(

UAV

) geometry.

Figure 7.20 Control, guidance, and navigation systems in the follower

unmann

...

Figure 7.21 A typical

unmanned aerial vehicle

(

UAV

) trajectory.

Figure 7.22 Configuration of radar, antenna, and guidance system.

Figure 7.23 MQ‐4C

unmanned aerial vehicle

(

UAV

) Global Hawk configuration (w...

Figure 7.24 Guidance system design process.

Figure 7.25 Geometry of the

unmanned aerial vehicle

(

UAV

) and target aircraf...

Figure 7.26 Geometry of the

unmanned aerial vehicle

(

UAV

) and target aircraf...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Coordinates of an

unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV) are determined by...

Figure 8.2 NASA Altair UAV.

Figure 8.3 Navigation process.

Figure 8.4 GPS satellites.

Figure 8.5 General Atomics RQ/MQ‐1 Predator A.

Figure 8.6 Longitude and latitude.

Figure 8.7 Longitudes and latitudes of the

unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV) fli...

Figure 8.8 Elements of an early basic mechanical accelerometer.

Figure 8.9 Gyroscope.

Figure 8.10 A roll‐angle‐hold autopilot.

Figure 8.11 Pitot‐static measurement device.

Figure 8.12 A pitot‐static tube.

Figure 8.13 Adafruit 9‐DOF IMU (LSM9DS0) compared with the size of a coin.

Figure 8.14 Wind influence on ground speed.

Figure 8.15 Sinusoidal horizontal gust.

Figure 8.16 Discrete gust.

Figure 8.17 Height measurement in a small

unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV) at 5...

Figure 8.18 Drift due to the wind.

Figure 8.19 The drift due to Coriolis effect.

Figure 8.20 Declination across USA (https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag/WMM).

Figure 8.21 Inertial navigation system design process.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Microcontroller connections (inputs/outputs).

Figure 9.2 The structures of a microcontroller and a microprocessor.

Figure 9.3 Types of microcontroller.

Figure 9.4 Microcontroller Packaging.

Figure 9.5 Basic layout of a microcontroller.

Figure 9.6 Atmel ATmega644P pinout.

Figure 9.7 The functions of D/A converter and A/D converter.

Figure 9.8 ISP output connections to a 40‐‐lead PDIP.

Figure 9.9 Arduino wiring in an

unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV).

Figure 9.10 Arduino software and its main menu items.

Figure 9.11 Elements of an Arduino Uno board.

Figure 9.12 Block diagram of the open‐loop control of an elevator

Figure 9.13 Circuit, wiring, and schematic of the servo control system.

Figure 9.14 ArduPilot AMP 2.6.

Figure 9.15 MP21283X MicroPilot's triple redundant autopilot.

Figure 9.16 Microcontroller design/selection/development procedure.

Figure 9.17 Beam balance mechanism.

Figure 9.18 Wiring of the Arduino Uno board.

Figure 9.19 Variations of the ball location on the beam.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Pioneer

Unmanned aerial vehicle

(

UAV

) during rocket assisted lau...

Figure 10.2 Top view of a bungee cord launcher.

Figure 10.3 Normalized values of

Unmanned aerial vehicle

(

UAV

) displacement,...

Figure 10.4 ScanEagle pneumatic launcher

Figure 10.5 Shadow 200 hydraulic launch

Figure 10.6 RQ‐11 Raven hand launch.

Figure 10.7 Shadow

Unmanned aerial vehicle

(

UAV

) and its launcher.

Figure 10.8 Penguin C with launcher and ground station.

Figure 10.9 Worm‐gear screw jack as used the elevation platform.

Figure 10.10 Major elements of a launcher.

Figure 10.11 Contributing forces on a launcher.

Figure 10.12 Forces and moments at the launch.

Figure 10.13 Elevation mechanism.

Figure 10.14 Net AAI Aerosonde recovery.

Figure 10.15 Net recovery of a AAI RQ‐2 pioneer UAV.

Figure 10.16 Skyhook ScanEagle recovery.

Figure 10.17 Windsock recovery system concept.

Figure 10.18 SkyLite UAV parachute recovery.

Figure 10.19 Relative setup times for various recovery systems.

Figure 10.20 Launch system design process.

Figure 10.21 Recovery system design process.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1

Ground control station

(

GCS

) and the air vehicle (RQ‐11 Raven

Un

...

Figure 11.2 Handheld remote control of a small

Unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV)...

Figure 11.3 Process of sending a command from a handheld control box to a

Un

...

Figure 11.4 Engine control via a stick deflection.

Figure 11.5 Typical single‐turn potentiometers.

Figure 11.6 Main elements of a typical portable

ground control station

(GCS)...

Figure 11.7 Desert Hawk III mini

unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV) and its porta...

Figure 11.8 Inside RQ‐7A Shadow 200 GCS.

Figure 11.9 Ikhana pilot workstation.

Figure 11.10 Plan view of interior layout of a

ground control station

(

GCS

) ...

Figure 11.11 Global Hawk operations centeroc at

National Administration for

...

Figure 11.12 A general GCS to control various

unmanned aerial vehicles

(UAVs...

Figure 11.13 GCS of a Shadow 200.

Figure 11.14 Standard console dimensions.

Figure 11.15 Reaper

ground control station

(GCS).

Figure 11.16 Phoenix

unmanned aerial system

(

UAS

).

Figure 11.17

Ground control station

(GCS) design process.

Figure 11.18 Circuit, wiring, and schematic of the servo control system.

Figure 11.19 Circuit and wiring the experiment.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 MQ‐1 Predator A payloads.

Figure 12.2 Sensors of NASA Altair UAV.

Figure 12.3 Epsilon 135 (EO) and Epsilon 175 (IR) gyro stabilized cameras.

Figure 12.4 Global express weather radar.

Figure 12.5 Range finder mechanism.

Figure 12.6

Laser designator

(

LD

) mechanism.

Figure 12.7 NASA Global Hawk.

Figure 12.8 TMP37 temperature sensor.

Figure 12.9 AGM‐114 Hellfire missile.

Figure 12.10 Towed decoy system for Global Hawk.

Figure 12.11 Wiring for a camera in a

unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV).

Figure 12.12 Payload fairing (side‐view, and top‐view).

Figure 12.13 Fairing for two external antennas of a Predator B Reaper.

Figure 12.14 Cross section of a UAV radome carrying a ground moving targets ...

Figure 12.15 Payload configuration in a UAV with a pusher engine.

Figure 12.16 Instrument layout in a NASA Global Hawk

Figure 12.17 Payload selection/design process.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Data link network diagram.

Figure 13.2 Transmitter in two locations.

Figure 13.3 Receiver in two locations.

Figure 13.4 Antenna types.

Figure 13.5 Command, Control, and Communications (C3) model.

Figure 13.6 NASA Altair satellite communications antenna.

Figure 13.7 Antennas of NASA's Ikhana Predator B.

Figure 13.8 Communications system design process.

Figure 13.9 NRF24L01 and HC‐05 modules. (a) Two NRF24L01 modules with antenn...

Figure 13.10 Typical pin connections of a NRF24L01 module with an Arduino Un...

Figure 13.11 Wiring of NRF24L01 module, potentiometer, and servo to Uno boar...

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(

UAV

) analysis teams.

Figure 14.2 Feedbacks provided by cg and moment of inertia calculations.

Figure 14.3 Three major feedbacks in the

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(

UAV

) desig...

Figure 14.4 Definition of body‐axis coordinate system.

Figure 14.5 Ideal region for the cg location along x‐axis.

Figure 14.6 A typical operational flight envelope.

Figure 14.7 Main operations in a typical flight.

Figure 14.8 NASA Helios

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(

UAV

).

Figure 14.9 NASA

highly maneuverable aircraft technology

(

HiMAT

)

Unmanned Ae

...

Figure 14.10

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(

UAV

) and the obstacle.

Figure 14.11 Status of cost and ease of change in design during design progr...

Guide

Cover

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Aerospace Series

Helicopter Flight Dynamics: Including a Treatment of Tiltrotor Aircraft, 3rd EditionGareth D. Padfield, CEng, PhD, FRAeS

Space Flight Dynamics, 2nd EditionCraig A. Kluever

Performance of the Jet Transport Airplane: Analysis Methods, Flight Operations, and RegulationsTrevor M. Young

Small Unmanned Fixed‐wing Aircraft Design: A Practical ApproachAndrew J. Keane, András Sóbester, James P. Scanlan

Advanced UAV Aerodynamics, Flight Stability and Control: Novel Concepts, Theory and ApplicationsPascual Marqués, Andrea Da Ronch

Differential Game Theory with Applications to Missiles and Autonomous Systems GuidanceFarhan A. Faruqi

Introduction to Nonlinear AeroelasticityGrigorios Dimitriadis

Introduction to Aerospace Engineering with a Flight Test PerspectiveStephen Corda

Aircraft Control AllocationWayne Durham, Kenneth A. Bordignon, Roger Beck

Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems: A Human Systems Integration PerspectiveNancy J. Cooke, Leah J. Rowe, Winston Bennett Jr., DeForest Q. Joralmon

Theory and Practice of Aircraft PerformanceAjoy Kumar Kundu, Mark A. Price, David Riordan

Adaptive Aeroservoelastic ControlAshish Tewari

The Global Airline Industry, 2nd EditionPeter Belobaba, Amedeo Odoni, Cynthia Barnhart

Modeling the Effect of Damage in Composite Structures: Simplified ApproachesChristos Kassapoglou

Introduction to Aircraft Aeroelasticity and Loads, 2nd EditionJan R. Wright, Jonathan Edward Cooper

Theoretical and Computational AerodynamicsTapan K. Sengupta

Aircraft Aerodynamic Design: Geometry and OptimizationAndrás Sóbester, Alexander I. J. Forrester

Stability and Control of Aircraft Systems: Introduction to Classical Feedback ControlRoy Langton

Aerospace PropulsionT. W. Lee

Civil Avionics Systems, 2nd EditionIan Moir, Allan Seabridge, Malcolm Jukes

Aircraft Flight Dynamics and ControlWayne Durham

Modelling and Managing Airport PerformanceKonstantinos Zografos, Giovanni Andreatta, Amedeo Odoni

Advanced Aircraft Design: Conceptual Design, Analysis and Optimization of Subsonic Civil AirplanesEgbert Torenbeek

Design and Analysis of Composite Structures: With Applications to Aerospace Structures, 2nd EditionChristos Kassapoglou

Aircraft Systems Integration of Air‐Launched WeaponsKeith A. Rigby

Understanding Aerodynamics: Arguing from the Real PhysicsDoug McLean

Design and Development of Aircraft Systems, 2nd EditionIan Moir, Allan Seabridge

Aircraft Design: A Systems Engineering ApproachMohammad H. Sadraey

Introduction to UAV Systems, 4th EditionPaul Fahlstrom, Thomas Gleason

Theory of Lift: Introductory Computational Aerodynamics in MATLAB/OctaveG. D. McBain

Sense and Avoid in UAS: Research and ApplicationsPlamen Angelov

Morphing Aerospace Vehicles and StructuresJohn Valasek

Spacecraft Systems Engineering, 4th EditionPeter Fortescue, Graham Swinerd, John Stark

Unmanned Aircraft Systems: UAVS Design, Development and DeploymentReg Austin

Gas Turbine Propulsion SystemsBernie MacIsaac, Roy Langton

Aircraft Systems: Mechanical, Electrical, and Avionics Subsystems Integration, 3rd EditionIan Moir, Allan Seabridge

Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics, 3rd EditionJohn M. Seddon, Simon Newman

System Health Management: with Aerospace ApplicationsStephen B. Johnson, Thomas Gormley, Seth Kessler, Charles Mott, Ann Patterson‐Hine, Karl Reichard, Philip Scandura Jr.

Advanced Control of Aircraft, Spacecraft and RocketsAshish Tewari

Air Travel and Health: A Systems PerspectiveAllan Seabridge, Shirley Morgan

Principles of Flight for PilotsPeter J. Swatton

Handbook of Space TechnologyWilfried Ley, Klaus Wittmann, Willi Hallmann

Cooperative Path Planning of Unmanned Aerial VehiclesAntonios Tsourdos, Brian White, Madhavan Shanmugavel

Design and Analysis of Composite Structures: With Applications to Aerospace StructuresChristos Kassapoglou

Introduction to Antenna Placement and InstallationThereza Macnamara

Principles of Flight SimulationDavid Allerton

Aircraft Fuel SystemsRoy Langton, Chuck Clark, Martin Hewitt, Lonnie Richards

Computational Modelling and Simulation of Aircraft and the Environment, Volume 1: Platform Kinematics and Synthetic EnvironmentDominic J. Diston

Aircraft Performance Theory and Practice for Pilots, 2nd EditionPeter J. Swatton

Military Avionics SystemsIan Moir, Allan Seabridge, Malcolm Jukes

Aircraft Conceptual Design SynthesisDenis Howe

Design of Unmanned Aerial Systems

Dr. Mohammad H. Sadraey

Southern New Hampshire UniversityManchester, NH, USA

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Sadraey, Mohammad H., author.Title: Design of unmanned aerial systems / Dr. Mohammad H. Sadraey.Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2020. | Series: Aerospace series | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2019024537 (print) | LCCN 2019024538 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119508700 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119508694 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119508625 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Drone aircraft–Design and construction.Classification: LCC TL685.35 .S235 2019 (print) | LCC TL685.35 (ebook) | DDC 629.133/39–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019024537LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019024538

Cover image: © NASA, © NASA/Tony LandisCover design by Wiley

To Fatemeh Zafarani, Ahmad, and Atieh, for all their love and understanding

Preface

Definitions

An Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) is a group of coordinated multidisciplinary elements for an aerial mission by employing various payloads in flying vehicle(s). In contrast, an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) is a remotely piloted or self‐piloted aircraft that can carry payloads such as camera, radar, sensor, and communications equipment. All flight operations (including takeoff and landing) are performed without on‐board human pilot. In news and media reports, the expression “drone” – as a short term – is preferred.

A UAS basically includes five main elements: 1. Air vehicle; 2. Control station; 3. Payload; 4. Launch and recovery system, 5. Maintenance and support system. Moreover, the environment in which the UAV(s) or the systems elements operate (e.g., the airspace, the data links, relay aircraft, etc.) may be assumed as the sixth (6) inevitable element.

A UAV is much more than a reusable air vehicle. UAVs are to perform critical missions without risk to personnel and more cost effectively than comparable manned system. UAVs are air vehicles; they fly like airplanes and operate in an airplane environment. They are designed like air vehicles; they have to meet flight critical air vehicle requirements. A designer needs to know how to integrate complex, multi‐disciplinary systems, and to understand the environment, the requirements and the design challenges.

UAVs are employed in numerous flight missions; in scientific projects and research studies such as hurricane tracking, volcano monitoring, and remote sensing; and in commercial applications such as tall building and bridge observation, traffic control, tower maintenance, and fire monitoring. UAVs also present very unique opportunities for filmmakers in aerial filming/photography.

The UAVs are about to change how directors make movies in capturing the perfect aerial shot. In military arenas, UAVs may be utilized in flight missions such as surveillance, reconnaissance, intelligent routing, offensive operations, and combat. A UAV must typically be flexible, adaptable, capable of performing reconnaissance work, geo‐mapping ready, able to collect samples of various pollutants, ready to conduct “search and destroy” missions, and prepared to research in general.

There is no consensus for the definition of autonomy in UAV community. The main systems drivers for autonomy are that it should provide more flexible operation, in that the operator tells the system what is wanted from the mission (not how to do it) with the flexibility of dynamic changes to the mission goals being possible in flight with minimal operation re‐planning. Autonomy is classified in 10 levels, from remotely piloted, to fully autonomous swarm. Autonomy includes a level of artificial intelligence. An autopilot is the main element by which the level of autonomy is determined. For instance, stabilization of an unstable UAV is a function for autopilot.

In 2018, at least 122 000 people in the U.S. are certified to fly UAVs professionally, according to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), which sparked the UAVs explosion in 2016 when it simplified its process for allowing their commercial use. FAA has ruled that commercial UAV flight outside a pilot's line of sight is not allowed. About three million UAVs were sold [1] worldwide in 2017, according to Time Magazine, and more than one million UAVs are registered for US use with the FAA.

By January 2019, at least 62 countries are developing or using over 1300 various UAVs. The contributions of unmanned UAV in sorties, hours, and expanded roles continue to increase. These diverse systems range in cost from a few hundred dollars (Amazon sells varieties) to tens of millions of dollars. Range in capability from Micro Air Vehicles (MAV) weighing less than 1 lb to aircraft weighing over 40 000 lbs. UAVs will have to fit into a pilot based airspace system. Airspace rules are based on manned aircraft experience.

Objectives

The objective of this book is to provide a basic text for courses in the design of UASs and UAVs at both the upper division undergraduate and beginning graduate levels. Special effort has been made to provide knowledge, lessons, and insights into UAS technologies and associated design techniques across various engineering disciplines. The author has attempted to comprehensively cover all the main design disciplines that are needed for a successful UAS design project. To cover such a broad scope in a single book, depths in many areas have to be sacrificed.

UAVs share much in common with manned aircraft. The design of manned aircraft and the design of UAVs have many similarities; and some differences. The similarities include: 1. Design process; 2. Constraints (e.g., g‐load, pressurization); and 3. UAV main components (e.g., wing, tail, fuselage, propulsion system, structure, control surfaces, and landing gear). The differences include: 1. Autopilot, 2. Communication system, 3. Sensors, 4. Payload, 5. Launch and recovery system, and 6. Ground control station.

The book is primarily written with the objective to be a main source for a UAS chief designer. The techniques presented in this book are suitable for academic study, and teaching students. The book can be adopted as the main text for a single elective course in UAS and UAV design for engineering programs. This text is also suitable for professional continuing education for individuals who are interested in UASs. Industries engineers with various backgrounds can learn about UAS and prepare themselves for new roles in UAS design project.

Approach

The process of UAS design is a complex combination of numerous disciplines which have to be blended together to yield the optimum design to meet a given set of requirements. This is a true statement “the design techniques are not understood unless practiced.” Therefore, the reader is highly encouraged to experience the design techniques and concepts through application projects. The instructors are also encouraged to define an open‐ended semester−/year‐long UAS design project to help the students to practice and learn through the application and experiencing the iterative nature of the design technique. It is my sincere wish that this book will help aspiring students and design engineers to learn and create more efficient and safer UASs, and UAVs.

In this text, the coverage of the topics which are similar to that of a manned aircraft is reviewed. However, the topics which are not covered in a typical manned aircraft design book, are presented in detail. The author has written a book on manned aircraft design – Aircraft Design, a Systems Engineering Approach – published by Wiley. In several topics, the reader recommends the reader to study that text for the complete details. Some techniques (e.g., matching plot) deviate from traditional aircraft design. Throughout the text, the systems engineering approach is examined and implemented.

A UAV designer must: (a) be knowledgeable on the various related engineering topics; (b) be aware of the latest UAV developments; (c) be informed of the current technologies; (d) employ lessons learned from past failures; and (e) appreciate breadth of UAV design options.

A design process requires both integration and iteration. A design process includes: 1. Synthesis: the creative process of putting known things together into new and more useful combinations. 2. Analysis: the process of predicting the performance or behavior of a design candidate. 3. Evaluation: the process of performance calculation and comparing the predicted performance of each feasible design candidate to determine the deficiencies.

UAVs are typically smaller than manned aircraft, have a reduced radar signature, and an increased range and endurance. A UAV designer is also involved in mission planning. Payload type has a direct effect of mission planning. For any mission, the commander seeks to establish criteria that maximize his probability of success. Planning considerations are cost dependent. A UAV can be designed for both scientific purposes and for the military. Their once reconnaissance only role is now shared with strike, force protection, and signals collection.

Beyond traditional aircraft design topics, this text presents detail design of launchers, recovery systems, communication systems, electro‐optic/infrared cameras, ground control station, autopilot, radars, scientific sensors, flight control system, navigation system, guidance system, and microcontrollers.

Outline

The objective of the book is to review the design fundamentals of UAVs, as well as the coverage of the design techniques of the UASs. The book is organized into 14 Chapters. Chapter 1 is devoted to design fundamentals including design process, and three design phases (i.e., conceptual, preliminary, and detail). The preliminary design phase is presented in Chapter 2 to determine maximum takeoff weight, wing reference planform area, and engine thrust/power. Various design disciplines including propulsion system, electric system, landing gear, and safety analysis are covered in Chapter 3. The aerodynamic design of wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, and fuselage is provided in Chapter 4.

Fundamentals of autopilot design including UAV dynamic modeling, autopilot categories, flight simulation, flying qualities for UAVs, and autopilot design process is discussed in Chapter 5. The detail design of control system, guidance system, and navigation system are covered in Chapters 6, 7, and 8 respectively. As the heart of autopilot, the design and application of microcontrollers are explained in Chapter 9. In this Chapter, topics such as microcontroller circuitry, microcontroller elements, embedded systems, and programming are described. Moreover, features of a number of open‐source commercial microcontrollers and autopilots (e.g., Arduino and Ardupilot) are introduced. Chapters 10 and 11 are dedicated to two subsystems of a UAS; namely launch and recovery systems, and ground control station. In both chapters, fundamentals, equipment, types, governing equations, ergonomics, technologies, and design techniques are presented.

The payload selection and design is provided in Chapter 12. Various types of payloads including cargo, electro‐optic cameras, infrared sensors, range finders, radars, lidars, scientific payloads, military payloads, and electronic counter measure equipment are considered in this chapter. The communications system (including transmitter, receiver, antenna, datalink, frequencies, and encryption) design is discussed in Chapter 13. Finally, in Chapter 14, various design analysis and evaluation techniques; mainly weight and balance, stability analysis, control analysis, performance analysis, and cost analysis techniques are discussed.

Special effort has been made to provide example problems so that the reader will have a clear understanding of the topic discussed. The book contains many fully solved examples in various chapters to exhibit the applications of the design techniques presented. Each chapter concludes with questions and problems; and some chapters with design problems and lab experiments. A solutions manual and figures library are available for instructors who adopt this book.

Quadcopters

Due to the popularity and uniqueness of quadcopters in aeronautics/aviation and commercial applications, this type of UAV is specially treated in this book. A number of sections in various chapters are dedicated to the configuration design, aerodynamic design, and control of quadcopters as follows: Section 2.10. Quadcopter configuration, Section 4.8. Aerodynamic design of quadcopters, and Section 5.7. Quadcopter dynamic model.

Unit System

In this text, the emphasize is on the SI units or metric system; which employs the meter (m) as the unit of length, the kilogram (kg) as the unit of mass, and the second (s) as the unit of time. The metric unit system is taken as fundamental, this being the educational basis in the most parts of the world. It is true that metric units are more universal and technically consistent than British units. However, currently, many Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) are published in British Units; where the foot (ft) is the unit of length/altitude, the slug is the unit of mass, pound (lb) is the unit of force (weight), and the second (s) as the unit of time. British/imperial units are still used extensively, particularly in the USA, and by industries and other federal agencies and organizations in aviation, such as FAA and NASA.

In FARs, the unit of pound (lb) is used as the unit for force and weight, knot for airspeed, and foot for altitude. Thus, in various locations, the knot is mainly used as the unit of airspeed, lb for weight and force and, ft as the unit of altitude. Therefore, in this text, a combination of SI unit and British unit systems is utilized. For dimensional examples in the text and diagrams, both units are used which it is felt have stood the test of time and may well continue to do so.

In many cases, units in both systems are used, in other cases reference may need to be made to the conversion tables. In either system, units other than the basic one are sometimes used, depending on the context; this is particularly so for weight/mass and airspeed. For instance, the UAV airspeed is more conveniently expressed in kilometers/hour or in knots than in meters/second or in feet/second. For the case of weight/mass, the unit of kg is employed for maximum takeoff mass, while the unit of pound (lb) is utilized for the maximum takeoff weight.

Acknowledgment

Putting a book together requires the talents of many people, and talented individuals abound at Wiley Publishers. My sincere gratitude goes to Eric Willner and Steven Fassioms, executive editors of engineering, Thilagavathy Mounisamy, production editor, and Sashi Samuthiram for composition. My special thanks go to Mary Malin, as outstanding copy editor and proof‐reader that are essential in creating an error‐free text. I especially owe a large debt of gratitude to my students and the reviewers of this text. Their questions, suggestions, and criticisms have helped me to write more clearly and accurately and have influenced markedly the evolution of this book.

January 2019Mohammad H. Sadraey

Acronyms

2d

Two dimensional

3d

Three dimensional

AC

Alternating Current, aerodynamic center

ADF

Automatic direction finder

AI

Artificial intelligence

AIA

Aerospace Industries Association

AFCS

Automatic flight control systems

APU

Auxiliary power unit

ATC

Air Traffic Control

C2

Command and Control

C3

Command, Control, and Communications

C4ISR

Command, Control, Communications, Computer, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance

CFD

Computational Fluid Dynamics

cg

Center of gravity

CMOS

Complementary metal oxide semiconductor; sensors

COTS

Commercial off‐the‐shelf

DARPA

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

DC

Direct Current

DOD

Department of Defense

DOF

Degree of freedom

DoS

Denial of Service

EO/IR

Electro‐Optic/Infra‐Red

ECM

Electronic Counter Measures

EM

Electro Magnetic

FAA

Federal Aviation Administration

FAR

Federal Aviation Regulations

FBW

Fly‐by‐wire

FLIR

Forward looking infrared

FOV

Field of view

fps

ft/sec, frame/sec

GA

General aviation

GCS

Ground control station

GIS

Geographic Information System

GNC

Guidance‐Navigation‐Control

GPS

Global Positioning System

GUI

Graphical user interface

HALE

High altitude long endurance

HLD

High Lift Device

HTOL

Horizontal takeoff and landing

HVAC

Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning

IC

Integrated Circuit

I2C

Inter‐Integrated Circuit

ILS

Instrument landing system

IMU

Inertial measurement unit

INS

Inertial navigation system

IR

Infra‐Red

ISA

International Standard Atmosphere

JATO

Jet assisted takeoff

KEAS

Knot Equivalent Air Speed

KTAS

Knot True Air Speed

LED

Light emitting diode

LIDAR

Light detection and ranging

LOS

Line‐of‐sight

LQR

Linear Quadratic Regulator

MAC

Mean Aerodynamic Chord

mAh

mili Ampere hour

MAV

Micro Air Vehicle

MCE

Mission control element

MDO

Multidisciplinary design optimization

MEMS

Microelectromechanical system

MIL‐STD

Military Standards

MIMO

Multiple‐input multiple‐output

MTBF

Mean time between failures

MTI

Moving Target Indicator

MTOW

Maximum takeoff weight

NACA

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

NASA

National Administration for Aeronautics and Astronautics

NTSB

National Transportation Safety Board

OS

Operating System

PIC

Pilot‐in‐Command

Pot

Potentiometer

PRF

Pulse‐repetition frequency

PWM

Pulse Width Modulation

rad

Radian

RC

Remote control, Radio control

RCS

Radar Cross Section

rpm

Revolution per minute

RPV

Remotely piloted vehicle

SAR

Synthetic aperture radar

SAS

Stability augmentation system

Satcom

Satellite Communication

SDRAM

Synchronous dynamic random access memory

SFC

Specific fuel consumption

SIGINT

Signals Intelligence

SISO

Single‐Input Single‐Output

sUAS

small unmanned aircraft system

sUAV

small unmanned aerial vehicle

TCA

Traffic collision avoidance

TCAS

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System

TE

Trailing Edge

UAS

Unmanned aerial system

UAV

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

UCAV

Unmanned combat air vehicle

USB

Universal Serial Bus

VHF

Very High Frequency

UHF

Ultra High frequency

VOR

Very High Frequency Omni‐Directional Range

VTOL

Vertical takeoff and landing

WGS

World Geodetic System

Nomenclature

Symbol

Name

Unit

a

Speed of sound

m/s, ft/s

a

Acceleration

m/s

2

, ft/s

2

a

C

Commanded normal acceleration, Coriolis acceleration

m/s

2

, ft/s

2

A

Area

m

2

, ft

2

A

r

Effective aperture

m

2

, ft

2

AR

Aspect ratio

—

b

Lifting surface (wing, tail) span

m, ft

C

Specific fuel consumption

N/h·kW, lb/h·hp

c

Wave/light velocity

m/s, km/h

C, c

Local chord, moment arm for an accelerometer

m, ft

Mean aerodynamic chord

m, ft

C

D

, C

L

, C

y

Drag, lift, and side force coefficients

—

C

l

, C

m

, C

n

Rolling, pitching, and yawing moment coefficients

—

C

LR

Rotation lift coefficient

—

Wing–fuselage pitching moment coefficient (about wing–fuselage aerodynamic center)

—

C

Lmax

Maximum lift coefficient

—

Cm

α

Rate of change of pitching moment coefficient w.r.t. angle of attack

1/rad

Cm

q

Rate of change of pitching moment coefficient w.r.t. pitch rate,

∂C

m

/

∂q

1/rad

Rate of change of rolling moment coefficient w.r.t. sideslip angle,

∂C

l

/

∂β

1/rad

Cn

β

Rate of change of yawing moment coefficient w.r.t. sideslip angle,

∂C

n

/

∂β

1/rad

Cn

r

Rate of change of yawing moment coefficient w.r.t. yaw rate

1/rad

C

Do

Zero‐lift drag coefficient

—

C

D

Drag coefficient

—

C

DG

Ground drag coefficient

—

C

DTO

Takeoff drag coefficient

—

C

Lα

Wing/tail/aircraft (3D) lift curve slope

1/rad

C

l

α

Airfoil (2D) lift curve slope

1/rad

C

Lmax

Maximum lift coefficient

—

C

p

Pressure coefficient

—

D

Drag force, drag

N, lb

D, d

Distance

m, ft

E

Endurance

h, s

E

Energy

J, ft·lb

E

D

Energy density

Wh/kg

e

Oswald span efficiency factor, natural logarithm base (i.e., 2.72), error, Earth eccentricity

—

f

Wave frequency; number of pulses per second

Hz

F

Force, friction force

N, lb

F

C

Centrifugal force, Coriolis force

N, lb

g

Gravity constant

9.81 m/s

2

, 32.17 ft/s

2

G

Fuel weight fraction

—

G

t

Gain of transmitting antenna

—

h

Altitude

m, ft

h, h

o

Non‐dimensional distance from cg (h) or ac (h

o

) to a reference line

—

H

Angular momentum

kg m

2

/s, slug ft

2

/s

i

h

Tail incidence

deg, rad

i

w

Wing incidence

deg, rad

l

Length, tail arm

m, ft

I

Mass moment of inertia

kg·m

2

, slug·ft

2

I

Current

A, mA

J

TP

Rotor inertia

kg·m

2

, slug·ft

2

K

Induced drag factor, gain in transfer function, gain in a controller

—

k

Cord spring constant

N/m

L, L

A

Rolling moment

Nm, lb·ft

l

Screw lead

m, in

L

Length

m, ft

L

Lift force, lift

N, lb

(L/D)

max

Maximum lift‐to‐drag ratio

—

M

Mach number

—

M, M

A

Pitching moment

Nm, lb·ft

m

Mass

kg, slug

m

B

Battery mass

kg, slug

m&c.dotab;

Engine air mass flow rate

kg/s, lb/s

MTOW

Maximum takeoff weight

N, lb

MAC

Mean aerodynamic chord

m, ft

n

Load factor

—

n

Rotational speed

rpm, rad/s

n

C

Commanded acceleration

—

N

Normal force

N, lb

N

′

Guidance gain

—

N, N

A

Yawing moment

N·m, lb·ft

P

Pressure

N/m

2

, Pa, lb/in

2

, psi

P

Power

W, kW, hp, lb·ft/s

p

Screw pitch

m, in

P

req

Required power

W, kW, hp, lb·ft/s

P

av

Available power

W, kW, hp, lb·ft/s

P

exc

Excess power

W, kW, hp, lb·ft/s

P, p

Roll rate

rad/s, deg/s

q,

Dynamic pressure

N/m

2

, Pa, lb/in

2

, psi

Q, q

Pitch rate

rad/s, deg/s

R

Range

m, km, ft, mile, mi, nmi

R

Air gas constant

287.26 J/kg·K

R

Radius, turn radius

m, ft

Re

Reynolds number

—

ROC

Rate of climb

m/s, ft/min, fpm

R, r

Yaw rate

rad/s, deg/s

s

Laplace transform variable

—

S

Planform area of a lifting/control surface

m

2

, ft

2

S

A

Airborne section of the takeoff run

m, ft

S

G

Ground roll

m, ft

S

TO

Takeoff run

m, ft

SFC

Specific fuel consumption

N/h/kW, lb/h/hp, 1/s, 1/ft

t

Time

S, min, h

T

Engine thrust

N, lb

T

Temperature

°C, °R, K, °F

T

Torque

Nm, lb·ft

T, t

Thickness

m, ft

t/c

Airfoil thickness‐to‐chord ratio

—

T/W

Thrust‐to‐weight ratio

—

U

Forward airspeed

m/s, ft/min, km/h, mi/h, knot

u

Control input in state space

—

V

Velocity, speed, airspeed

m/s, ft/min, km/h, mi/h, knot

V

C

Cruising velocity, closing velocity

m/s, ft/min, km/h, mi/h, knot

V

Volume

m

3

, ft

3

V

Voltage

V

V

n

Normal velocity

m/s, knot

V

max

Maximum speed

m/s, ft/min, km/h, mi/h, knot

V

Emax

Maximum endurance speed

m/s, ft/min, km/h, mi/h, knot

Vmin

D

Minimum drag speed

m/s, ft/min, km/h, mi/h, knot

V

Pmin

Minimum power speed

m/s, ft/min, km/h, mi/h, knot

V

R

Rotation speed

m/s, ft/min, km/h, mi/h, knot

V

ROCmax

Maximum rate of climb speed

m/s, ft/min, km/h, mi/h, knot

V

s

Stall speed

m/s, ft/min, km/h, mi/h, knot

V

T

True airspeed

m/s, ft/min, km/h, mi/h, knot

V

t

Terminal velocity

m/s, ft/min, km/h, mi/h, knot

V

TO

Takeoff speed

m/s, ft/min, km/h, mi/h, knot

V

W

Wind speed

m/s, ft/min, km/h, mi/h, knot

V

*

Corner speed

m/s, knot

,

Horizontal/vertical tail volume coefficient

—

W

Weight

N, lb

W

A

Autopilot weight

N, lb

WB

Battery weight

N, lb

W

E

Empty weight

N, lb

W

f

Fuel weight

N, lb

W

L

Landing weight

N, lb

W

PL

Payload weight

N, lb

W

TO

Maximum takeoff weight

N, lb

W/P

Power loading

N/W, lb/hp

W/S

Wing loading

N/m

2

, lb/ft

2

x, y, z

Displacement in x‐, y‐, and z‐direction

m, ft

x

State variable in state‐space equation

—

Y

Side force

N, lb

y

Output variable in state space

—

z

Variable in transfer function for digital form

—

Greek Symbols

Symbol

Name

Unit

α

Angle of attack

deg, rad

β

Sideslip angle

deg, rad

ε

Downwash angle

deg, rad

ε

Cross‐track error

m, ft

γ

Climb angle

deg, rad

θ

Pitch angle, angular displacement, launch angle

deg, rad

λ

Taper ratio, roots of characteristic equation

—

λ

Wavelength

m, in

λ

Localizer error angle, line of sight angle

deg

λ

Longitude

deg

φ

Bank angle, latitude

deg, rad

δ

Control surface deflection

deg, rad

σ

Air density ratio

—

σ

Sidewash angle

deg, rad

σ

Radar cross section

m

2

, ft

2

σ

max

Maximum actuation stress

N/m

2

, psi

ρ