Latin for Beginners E-Book

Benjamin L. D'ooge

• Herausgeber: Dead Dodo Education
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Seitenzahl: 545

Beschreibung

This Tribeca Press edition includes the full original text as well as exclusive images exclusive to this edition and an easy to use interactive table of contents.

Leseprobe

PREFACE

To make the course preparatory to Cæsar at the same time systematic, thorough, clear, and interesting is the purpose of this series of lessons.

The first pages are devoted to a brief discussion of the Latin language, its history, and its educational value. The body of the book, consisting of seventy-nine lessons, is divided into three parts.

Part I is devoted to pronunciation, quantity, accent, and kindred introductory essentials.

Part II carries the work through the first sixty lessons, and is devoted to the study of forms and vocabulary, together with some elementary constructions, a knowledge of which is necessary for the translation of the exercises and reading matter. The first few lessons have been made unusually simple, to meet the wants of pupils not well grounded in English grammar.

Part III contains nineteen lessons, and is concerned primarily with the study of syntax and of subjunctive and irregular verb forms. The last three of these lessons constitute a review of all the constructions presented in the book. There is abundant easy reading matter; and, in order to secure proper concentration of effort upon syntax and translation, no new vocabularies are introduced, but the vocabularies in Part II are reviewed.

It is hoped that the following features will commend themselves to teachers:

The forms are presented in their natural sequence, and are given, for the most part, in the body of the book as well as in a grammatical appendix. The work on the verb is intensive in character, work in other directions being reduced to a minimum while this is going on. The forms of the subjunctive are studied in correlation with the subjunctive constructions.

The vocabulary has been selected with the greatest care, using Lodge’s “Dictionary of Secondary Latin” and Browne’s “Latin Word List” as a basis. There are about six hundred words, exclusive of proper names, in the special vocabularies, and these are among the simplest and commonest words in the language. More than ninety-five per cent of those chosen are Cæsarian, and of these more than ninety per cent are used in Cæsar five or more times. The few words not Cæsarian are of such frequent occurrence in Cicero, Vergil, and other authors as to justify their appearance here. But teachers desiring to confine word study to Cæsar can easily do so, as the Cæsarian words are printed in the vocabularies in distinctive type. Concrete nouns have been preferred to abstract, root words to compounds and derivatives, even when the latter were of more frequent occurrence in Cæsar. To assist the memory, related English words are added in each special vocabulary. To insure more careful preparation, the special vocabularies have been removed from their respective lessons and placed by themselves. The general vocabulary contains about twelve hundred words, and of these above eighty-five per cent are found in Cæsar.

The syntax has been limited to those essentials which recent investigations, such as those of Dr. Lee Byrne and his collaborators, have shown to belong properly to the work of the first year. The constructions are presented, as far as possible, from the standpoint of English, the English usage being given first and the Latin compared or contrasted with it. Special attention has been given to the constructions of participles, the gerund and gerundive, and the infinitive in indirect statements. Constructions having a logical connection are not separated but are treated together.

Exercises for translation occur throughout, those for translation into Latin being, as a rule, only half as long as those for translation into English. In Part III a few of the commoner idioms in Cæsar are introduced and the sentences are drawn mainly from that author. From first to last a consistent effort is made to instill a proper regard for Latin word order, the first principles of which are laid down early in the course.

Selections for reading are unusually abundant and are introduced from the earliest possible moment. These increase in number and length as the book progresses, and, for the most part, are made an integral part of the lessons instead of being massed at the end of the book. This arrangement insures a more constant and thorough drill in forms and vocabulary, promotes reading power, and affords a breathing spell between succeeding subjects. The material is drawn from historical and mythological sources, and the vocabulary employed includes but few words not already learned. The book closes with a continued story which recounts the chief incidents in the life of a Roman boy. The last chapters record his experiences in Cæsar’s army, and contain much information that will facilitate the interpretation of the Commentaries. The early emphasis placed on word order and sentence structure, the simplicity of the syntax, and the familiarity of the vocabulary, make the reading selections especially useful for work in sight translation.

Reviews are called for at frequent intervals, and to facilitate this branch of the work an Appendix of Reviews has been prepared, covering both the vocabulary and the grammar.

The illustrations are numerous, and will, it is hoped, do much to stimulate interest in the ancient world and to create true and lasting impressions of Roman life and times.

A consistent effort has been made to use simple language and clear explanation throughout.

As an aid to teachers using this book a “Teacher’s Manual” has been prepared, which contains, in addition to general suggestions, notes on each lesson.

The author wishes to express his gratitude to the numerous teachers who tested the advance pages in their classes, and, as a result of their experience, have given much valuable aid by criticism and suggestion. Particular acknowledgments are due to Miss A. Susan Jones of the Central High School, Grand Rapids, Michigan; to Miss Clara Allison of the High School at Hastings, Michigan; and to Miss Helen B. Muir and Mr. Orland O. Norris, teachers of Latin in this institution.

BENJAMIN L. D’OOGEMichigan State Normal College

LATIN FOR BEGINNERS

TO THE STUDENT—BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION

What is Latin? If you will look at the map of Italy on the opposite page, you will find near the middle of the peninsula and facing the west coast a district called Latium,1 and Rome its capital. The Latin language, meaning the language of Latium, was spoken by the ancient Romans and other inhabitants of Latium, and Latin was the name applied to it after the armies of Rome had carried the knowledge of her language far beyond its original boundaries. As the English of to-day is not quite the same as that spoken two or three hundred years ago, so Latin was not always the same at all times, but changed more or less in the course of centuries. The sort of Latin you are going to learn was in use about two thousand years ago. And that period has been selected because the language was then at its best and the greatest works of Roman literature were being produced. This period, because of its supreme excellence, is called the Golden Age of Roman letters.

1. Pronounce Lâ´shi-um.

The Spread of Latin. For some centuries after Rome was founded, the Romans were a feeble and insignificant people, their territory was limited to Latium, and their existence constantly threatened by warlike neighbors. But after the third century before Christ, Rome’s power grew rapidly. She conquered all Italy, then reached out for the lands across the sea and beyond the Alps, and finally ruled over the whole ancient world. The empire thus established lasted for more than four hundred years. The importance of Latin increased with the growth of Roman power, and what had been a dialect spoken by a single tribe became the universal language. Gradually the language changed somewhat, developing differently in different countries. In Italy it has become Italian, in Spain Spanish, and in France French. All these nations, therefore, are speaking a modernized form of Latin.

The Romans and the Greeks. In their career of conquest the Romans came into conflict with the Greeks. The Greeks were inferior to the Romans in military power, but far superior to them in culture. They excelled in art, literature, music, science, and philosophy. Of all these pursuits the Romans were ignorant until contact with Greece revealed to them the value of education and filled them with the thirst for knowledge. And so it came about that while Rome conquered Greece by force of arms, Greece conquered Rome by force of her intellectual superiority and became her schoolmaster. It was soon the established custom for young Romans to go to Athens and to other centers of Greek learning to finish their training, and the knowledge of the Greek language among the educated classes became universal. At the same time many cultured Greeks—poets, artists, orators, and philosophers—flocked to Rome, opened schools, and taught their arts. Indeed, the preëminence of Greek culture became so great that Rome almost lost her ambition to be original, and her writers vied with each other in their efforts to reproduce in Latin what was choicest in Greek literature. As a consequence of all this, the civilization and national life of Rome became largely Grecian, and to Greece she owed her literature and her art.

Rome and the Modern World. After conquering the world, Rome impressed her language, laws, customs of living, and modes of thinking upon the subject nations, and they became Roman; and the world has remained largely Roman ever since. Latin continued to live, and the knowledge of Latin was the only light of learning that burned steadily through the dark ages that followed the downfall of the Roman Empire. Latin was the common language of scholars and remained so even down to the days of Shakespeare. Even yet it is more nearly than any other tongue the universal language of the learned. The life of to-day is much nearer the life of ancient Rome than the lapse of centuries would lead one to suppose. You and I are Romans still in many ways, and if Cæsar and Cicero should appear among us, we should not find them, except for dress and language, much unlike men of to-day.

Latin and English. Do you know that more than half of the words in the English dictionary are Latin, and that you are speaking more or less Latin every day? How has this come about? In the year 1066 William the Conqueror invaded England with an army of Normans. The Normans spoke French—which, you remember, is descended from Latin—and spread their language to a considerable extent over England, and so Norman-French played an important part in the formation of English and forms a large proportion of our vocabulary. Furthermore, great numbers of almost pure Latin words have been brought into English through the writings of scholars, and every new scientific discovery is marked by the addition of new terms of Latin derivation. Hence, while the simpler and commoner words of our mother tongue are Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon forms the staple of our colloquial language, yet in the realms of literature, and especially in poetry, words of Latin derivation are very abundant. Also in the learned professions, as in law, medicine, and engineering, a knowledge of Latin is necessary for the successful interpretation of technical and scientific terms.

Why study Latin? The foregoing paragraphs make it clear why Latin forms so important a part of modern education. We have seen that our civilization rests upon that of Greece and Rome, and that we must look to the past if we would understand the present. It is obvious, too, that the knowledge of Latin not only leads to a more exact and effective use of our own language, but that it is of vital importance and of great practical value to any one preparing for a literary or professional career. To this it may be added that the study of Latin throws a flood of light upon the structure of language in general and lays an excellent foundation for all grammatical study. Finally, it has been abundantly proved that there is no more effective means of strengthening the mind than by the earnest pursuit of this branch of learning.

Review Questions. Whence does Latin get its name? Where is Latium? Where is Rome? Was Latin always the same? What sort of Latin are we to study? Describe the growth of Rome’s power and the spread of Latin. What can you say of the origin of Italian, French, and Spanish? How did the ancient Greeks and Romans compare? How did Greece influence Rome? How did Rome influence the world? In what sense are we Romans still? What did Latin have to do with the formation of English? What proportion of English words are of Latin origin, and what kind of words are they? Why should we study Latin?

PART I

THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN

THE ALPHABET

1. The Latin alphabet contains the same letters as the English except that it has no w and no j.

2. The vowels, as in English, are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are consonants.

3. I is used both as a vowel and as a consonant. Before a vowel in the same syllable it has the value of a consonant and is called I consonant.

Thus in Iû-li-us the first i is a consonant, the second a vowel.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS1

1. N.B. The sounds of the letters are best learned by hearing them correctly pronounced. The matter in this section is, therefore, intended for reference rather than for assignment as a lesson. As a first step it is suggested that the teacher pronounce the examples in class, the pupils following.

4. Latin was not pronounced like English. The Romans at the beginning of the Christian era pronounced their language substantially as described below.

5. The vowels have the following sounds:

Vowels2

Latin Examples

â as in father

a like the first a in aha´, never as in hat

hâc, stâsa´-mat, ca-nâs

ê as in theye as in met

tê´-la, mê´-tate´-net, mer´-cês

î as in machinei as in bit

ser´-tî, prâ´-tîsi´-tis, bi´-bî

ô as in holyo as in wholly, never as in hot

Rô´-ma, ô´-rismo´-do, bo´-nôs

û as in rude, or as oo in boot

u as in full, or as oo in foot

û´-mor, tû´-berut, tû´-tus

2. Long vowels are marked ¯, short ones [)].{Transcriber’s Addendum: Short vowels are not marked in this version of the text.}

Note. It is to be observed that there is a decided difference in sound, except in the case of a, between the long and the short vowels. It is not merely a matter of quantity but also of quality.

6. In diphthongs (two-vowel sounds) both vowels are heard in a single syllable.

Diphthongs

Latin Examples

ae as ai in aisleau as ou in out

tae´-daegau´-det

ei as ei in eight

eu as e´[oo] (a short e followed by a short u in one syllable)

dein´-deseu

oe like oi in toil

ui like [oo]´i (a short u followed by a short i in one syllable. Cf. English we)

foe´-duscui, huic

Note. Give all the vowels and diphthongs their proper sounds and do not slur over them in unaccented syllables, as is done in English.

7. Consonants are pronounced as in English, except that

Consonants

Latin Examples

c is always like c in cat, never as in cent

g is always like g in get, never as in gem

i consonant is always like y in yes

n before c, qu, or g is like ng in sing (compare the sound of n in anchor)

ca´-dô, ci´-bus, cê´-nage´-mô, gig´-nôiam, io´-cusan´-co-ra (ang´-ko-ra)

qu, gu, and sometimes su before a vowel have the sound of qw, gw, and sw. Here u has the value of consonant v and is not counted a vowel

in´-quit, quî, lin´-gua, san´-guis, suâ´-de-ô

s is like s in sea, never as in ease

t is always like t in native, never as in nation

ro´-sa, isra´-ti-ô, nâ´-ti-ô

v is like w in wine, never as in vine

x has the value of two consonants (cs or gs) and is like x in extract, not as in exact

vî´-num, virex´-trâ, ex-âc´-tus

bs is like ps and bt like pt

ch, ph, and th are like c, p, t

urbs, ob-ti´-ne-ô

pul´-cher, Phoe´-bê, the-â´-trum

a. In combinations of consonants give each its distinct sound. Doubled consonants should be pronounced with a slight pause between the two sounds. Thus pronounce tt as in rat-trap, not as in rattle; pp as in hop-pole, not as inupper. Examples, mit´-tô, Ap´pi-us, bel´-lum.

SYLLABLES

8. A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. Thus aes-tâ´-te has three syllables, au-di-en´-dus has four.

a. Two vowels with a consonant between them never make one syllable, as is so often the case in English. Compare English inside with Latin în-sî´-de.

9. Words are divided into syllables as follows:

1. A single consonant between two vowels goes with the second. Thus a-mâ´-bi-lis, me-mo´-ri-a, in-te´-re-â, a´-best, pe-rê´-git.3

3. In writing and printing it is customary to divide the parts of a compound, as inter-eâ, ab-est, sub-âctus, per-êgit, contrary to the correct phonetic rule.

2. Combinations of two or more consonants:

a. A consonant followed by l or r goes with the l or r. Thus pû´-bli-cus, a´-grî.

Exception. Prepositional compounds of this nature, as also ll and rr, follow rule b. Thus ab´-lu-ô, ab-rum´-pô, il´-le, fer´-rum.

b. In all other combinations of consonants the first consonant goes with the preceding vowel.4 Thus mag´-nus, e-ges´-tâs, vic-tô´-ri-a, hos´-pes, an´-nus, su-bâc´-tus.

4. The combination nct is divided nc-t, as fûnc-tus, sânc-tus.

3. The last syllable of a word is called the ul´-ti-ma; the one next to the last, the pe-nult´; the one before the penult, the an´-te-pe-nult´.

10. EXERCISE

Divide the words in the following passage into syllables and pronounce them, placing the accent as indicated:

Vâ´de ad formî´cam, Ô pi´ger, et cônsî´derâ vi´âs e´ius et di´sce sapie´ntiam: quae cum nôn ha´beat du´cem nec praeceptô´rem nec prî´ncipem, pa´rat in aestâ´te ci´bum si´bi et co´ngregat in me´sse quod co´medat.

[Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise: which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth her food in the harvest.]

QUANTITY

11. The quantity of a vowel or a syllable is the time it takes to pronounce it. Correct pronunciation and accent depend upon the proper observance of quantity.

12. Quantity of Vowels. Vowels are either long (¯) or short. In this book the long vowels are marked. Unmarked vowels are to be considered short.

1. A vowel is short before another vowel or h; as po-ê´-ta, tra´-hô.

2. A vowel is short before nt and nd, before final m or t, and, except in words of one syllable, before final l or r. Thus a´-mant, a-man´-dus, a-mâ´-bam, a-mâ´-bat, a´-ni-mal, a´-mor.

3. A vowel is long before nf, ns, nx, and nct. Thus în´-fe-rô, re´-gêns, sân´-xî, sânc´-tus.

4. Diphthongs are always long, and are not marked.

13. Quantity of Syllables. Syllables are either long or short, and their quantity must be carefully distinguished from that of vowels.

1. A syllable is short,

a. If it ends in a short vowel; as a´-mô, pi´-gri.

Note. In final syllables the short vowel may be followed by a final consonant. Thus the word me-mo´-ri-am contains four short syllables. In the first three a short vowel ends the syllable, in the last the short vowel is followed by a final consonant.

2. A syllable is long,

a. If it contains a long vowel or a diphthong, as cû´-rô, poe´-nae, aes-tâ´-te.

b. If it ends in a consonant which is followed by another consonant, as cor´-pus, mag´-nus.

Note. The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short, and should be pronounced accordingly. Thus in ter´-ra, in´-ter, the first syllable is long, but the vowel in each case is short and should be given the short sound. In words like saxum the first syllable is long because x has the value of two consonants (cs or gs).

3. In determining quantity h is not counted a consonant.

Note. Give about twice as much time to the long syllables as to the short ones. It takes about as long to pronounce a short vowel plus a consonant as it does to pronounce a long vowel or a diphthong, and so these quantities are considered equally long. For example, it takes about as long to say cur´-rô as it does cû´-rô, and so each of these first syllables is long. Compare mol´-lis and mô´-lis, â-mis´-sî and â-mi´-sî.

ACCENT

14. Words of two syllables are accented on the first, as mên´-sa, Cae´-sar.

15. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if the penult is long. If the penult is short, accent the antepenult. Thus mo-nê´-mus, re´-gi-tur, a-gri´-co-la, a-man´-dus.

Note. Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the length of the syllable and not by the length of the vowel in the syllable. (Cf. § 13. 2, Note.)

16. Certain little words called enclit´ics5 which have no separate existence, are added to and pronounced with a preceding word. The most common are -que, and; -ve, or; and -ne, the question sign. The syllable before an enclitic takes the accent, regardless of its quantity. Thus populus´que, dea´que, rêgna´ve, audit´ne.

5. Enclitic means leaning back, and that is, as you see, just what these little words do. They cannot stand alone and so they lean back for support upon the preceding word.

HOW TO READ LATIN

17. To read Latin well is not so difficult, if you begin right. Correct habits of reading should be formed now. Notice the quantities carefully, especially the quantity of the penult, to insure your getting the accent on the right syllable. (Cf. § 15.) Give every vowel its proper sound and every syllable its proper length. Then bear in mind that we should read Latin as we read English, in phrases rather than in separate words. Group together words that are closely connected in thought. No good reader halts at the end of each word.

18. Read the stanzas of the following poem by Longfellow, one at a time, first the English and then the Latin version. The syllables inclosed in parentheses are to be slurred or omitted to secure smoothness of meter.

EXCELSIOR [HIGHER]! 6

The shades of night were falling fast,As through an Alpine village passedA youth, who bore, ‘mid snow and ice,A banner with the strange device,Excelsior!

Cadêbant noctis umbrae, dumIbat per vîcum AlpicumGelû nivequ(e) adolêscêns,Vêxillum cum signô ferêns,Excelsior!

His brow was sad; his eye beneath,Flashed like a falchion from its sheath,And like a silver clarion rungThe accents of that unknown tongue,Excelsior!

Frôns trîstis, micat oculusVelut ê vâgînâ gladius;Sonantque similês tubaeAccentûs lingu(ae) incognitae,Excelsior!

In happy homes he saw the lightOf household fires gleam warm and bright;Above, the spectral glaciers shone,And from his lips escaped a groan,Excelsior!

In domibus videt clârâsFocôrum lûcês calidâs;Relucet glaciês âcris,Et rumpit gemitûs labrîs,Excelsior!

“Try not the Pass!” the old man said;"Dark lowers the tempest overhead,The roaring torrent is deep and wide!"And loud that clarion voice replied,Excelsior!

Dîcit senex, “Nê trânseâs!Suprâ nigrêscit tempestâs;Lâtus et altus est torrêns."Clâra vênit vôx respondêns,Excelsior!

At break of day, as heavenwardThe pious monks of Saint BernardUttered the oft-repeated prayer,A voice cried through the startled air,Excelsior!

Iam lûcêscêbat, et frâtrêsSânctî Bernardî vigilêsÔrâbant precês solitâs,Cum vôx clâmâvit per aurâs,Excelsior!

A traveler, by the faithful hound,Half-buried in the snow was found,Still grasping in his hand of iceThat banner with the strange device,Excelsior!

Sêmi-sepultus viâtorCan(e) â fîdô reperîtur,Comprêndêns pugnô gelidôIllud vêxillum cum signô,Excelsior!

There in the twilight cold and gray,Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay,And from the sky, serene and far,A voice fell, like a falling star,Excelsior!

Iacet corpus exanimumSed lûce frîgidâ pulchrum;Et caelô procul exiênsCadit vôx, ut Stella cadêns,Excelsior!

6. Translation by C. W. Goodchild in Praeco Latinus, October, 1898.

PART II

WORDS AND FORMS

LESSON I

FIRST PRINCIPLES

19. Subject and Predicate. 1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus,

Galba is a farmerGalba est agricola

The sailor fightsNauta pugnat

In each of these sentences there are two parts:

Subject

GalbaGalbaThe sailorNauta

Predicate

is a farmerest agricolafightspugnat

2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something is said, and is therefore a noun or some word which can serve the same purpose.

a. Pronouns, as their name implies (pro, “instead of,” and noun), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating the same noun, as, Galba is a farmer; he is a sturdy fellow.

3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists of a verb with or without modifiers.

a. A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act) concerning a person, place, or thing.

20. The Object. In the two sentences, The boy hit the ball and The ball hit the boy, the same words are used, but the meaning is different, and depends upon the order of the words. The doer of the act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the subject. That to which something is done is the direct object of the verb. The boy hit the ball is therefore analyzed as follows:

Subject

Predicate

The boy

hit the ball(verb) (direct object)

a. A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in the sentence above, is called a transitive verb. A verb which does not admit of a direct object is called intransitive, as, I walk, he comes.

21. The Copula. The verb to be in its different forms—are, is, was, etc.—does not tell us anything about the subject; neither does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is called the copula, that is, the joiner or link.

22. In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas:

1.

America est patria meaAmerica is fatherland my

2.

Agricola fîliam amat(The) farmer (his) daughter loves

3.

Fîlia est Iûlia(His) daughter is Julia

4.

Iûlia et agricola sunt in însulâJulia and (the) farmer are on (the) island

5.

Iûlia aquam portatJulia water carries

6.

Rosam in comîs habet(A) rose in (her) hair (she) has

7.

Iûlia est puella pulchraJulia is (a) girl pretty

8.

Domina fîliam pulchram habet(The) lady (a) daughter beautiful has

a. The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words which are necessary in English. First of all, Latin has no article the or a; thus agricola may mean the farmer, a farmer, or simply farmer. Then, too, the personal pronouns, I, you, he, she, etc., and the possessive pronouns, my, your, his, her, etc., are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without them.

LESSON II

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

23. Inflection. Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, is, are; was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer’s; woman, women. This is called inflection. The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its declension, that of a verb its conjugation.

24. Number. Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding -s or -es to the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word. Compare

Naut-a pugnatThe sailor fights

Naut-ae pugnantThe sailors fight

25. Rule. Nouns that end in -a in the singular end in -ae in the plural.

26. Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each.

agri´cola, farmer (agriculture)1aqua, water (aquarium)causa, cause, reasondo´mina, lady of the house, mistress (dominate)filia, daughter (filial)fortû´na, fortune

fuga, flight (fugitive)iniû´ria, wrong, injurylûna, moon (lunar)nauta, sailor (nautical)puel´la, girlsilva, forest (silvan)terra, land (terrace)

1. The words in parentheses are English words related to the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as causa, cause, no comparison is needed.

27. Compare again the sentences

Nauta pugna-tThe sailor fights

Nautae pugna-ntThe sailors fight

In the first sentence the verb pugna-t is in the third person singular, in the second sentence pugna-nt is in the third person plural.

28. Rule. Agreement of Verb. A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject.

29. Rule. In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in -t, the third person plural in -nt. The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called personal endings.

30. Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The personal pronouns he, she, it, etc., which are necessary in the inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb’s subject is expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus nauta pugnat is translated the sailor fights, not the sailor he fights.

ama-t

he (she, it)

loves, is loving, does love (amity, amiable)

labô´ra-t

“   “   “

labors, is laboring, does labor

nûntia-t2

“   “   “

announces, is announcing, does announce

porta-t

“   “   “

carries, is carrying, does carry (porter)

pugna-t

“   “   “

fights, is fighting, does fight (pugnacious)

2. The u in nûntiô is long by exception. (Cf. § 12. 2.)

31. EXERCISES

I. 1. The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2. The sailor is carrying, the sailors carry. 3. The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4. The girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5. The ladies are carrying, the lady carries.

II. 1. Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2. Puella amat, puellae amant. 3. Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4. Fîlia labôrat, fîliae labôrant. 5. Nauta nûntiat, nautae nûntiant. 6. Dominae amant, domina amat.

[Illustration: seated ladyCaption: DOMINA]

LESSON III

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

32. Declension of Nouns. We learned above (§§ 19, 20) the difference between the subject and object, and that in English they may be distinguished by the order of the words. Sometimes, however, the order is such that we are left in doubt. For example, the sentence The lady her daughter loves might mean either that the lady loves her daughter, or that the daughter loves the lady.

1. If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the words, but by the endings of the words themselves. Compare the following sentences:

Domina fîliam amatFîliam domina amatAmat fîliam dominaDomina amat fîliam

The lady loves her daughter

Fîlia dominam amatDominam fîlia amatAmat dominam fîliaFîlia amat dominam

The daughter loves the lady

a. Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in -a and the object in -am. The form of the noun shows how it is used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on the essential meaning.

2. As stated above (§ 23), this change of ending is called declension, and each different ending produces what is called a case. When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases, or changes of endings. In English we have three cases,—nominative, possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of ending, by adding ‘s or the apostrophe. The interrogative pronoun, however, has the fuller declension, who? whose? whom?

33. The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized:

English Cases

Latin Cases

Declension of who?

Name of case and use

Declension of domina and translation

Name of case and use

Singular

Who?

Nominative—case of the subject

do´min-athe lady

Nominative—case of the subject

Whose?

Possessive—case of the possessor

domin-aethe lady’s

Genitive—case of the possessor

Whom?

Objective—case of the object

domin-amthe lady

Accusative—case of the direct object

Plural

Who?

Nominative—case of the subject

domin-aethe ladies

Nominative—case of the subject

Whose?

Possessive—case of the possessor

domin-â´rumthe ladies’of the ladies

Genitive—case of the possessor

Whom?

Objective—case of the object

domin-âsthe ladies

Accusative—case of the direct object

When the nominative singular of a noun ends in -a, observe that

a. The nominative plural ends in -ae.

b. The genitive singular ends in -ae and the genitive plural in -ârum.

c. The accusative singular ends in -am and the accusative plural in -âs.

d. The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same ending.

34. EXERCISE

Pronounce the following words and give their general meaning. Then give the number and case, and the use of each form. Where the same form stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses.

1. Silva, silvâs, silvam. 2. Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3. Terrârum, terrae, terrâs. 4. Aquâs, causam, lûnâs. 5. Fîliae, fortûnae, lûnae. 6. Iniûriâs, agricolârum, aquârum. 7. Iniûriârum, agricolae, puellâs. 8. Nautam, agricolâs, nautâs. 9. Agricolam, puellam, silvârum.

LESSON IV

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

35. We learned from the table (§ 33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence:

Fîlia agricolae nautam amat,the farmer’s daughter (or the daughter of the farmer) loves the sailor

What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what case is it?

36. Rule. Nominative Subject. The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?

37. Rule. Accusative Object. The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?

38. Rule. Genitive of the Possessor. The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?

[Illustration: Diana shoots an arrow at a bearCaption: DIANA SAGITTAS PORTAT ET FERAS NECAT]

39. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

I. 1. Diâna est dea. 2. Lâtôna est dea. 3. Diâna et Lâtôna sunt deae. 4. Diâna est dea lûnae. 5. Diâna est fîlia Lâtônae. 6. Lâtôna Diânam amat. 7. Diâna est dea silvârum. 8. Diâna silvam amat. 9. Diâna sagittâs portat. 10. Diâna ferâs silvae necat. 11. Ferae terrârum pugnant.

For the order of words imitate the Latin above.

II. 1. The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2. Latona’s daughter carries arrows. 3. The farmers’ daughters do labor. 4. The farmer’s daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5. The sailor is announcing the girls’ flight. 6. The girls announce the sailors’ wrongs. 7. The farmer’s daughter labors. 8. Diana’s arrows are killing the wild beasts of the land.

40. CONVERSATION

Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. The answers may be found in the exercises preceding.

1. Quis est Diâna?2. Cuius fîlia est Diâna?3. Quis Diânam amat?4. Quis silvam amat?5. Quis sagittâs portat?6. Cuius fîliae labôrant?

LESSON V

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

41. The Dative Case. In addition to the relationships between words expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative (objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in English we use such words as from, with, by, to, for, in, at.1

1. Words like to, for, by, from, in, etc., which define the relationship between words, are called prepositions.

Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which English does not possess. One of the cases found in the Latin declension and lacking in English is called the dative.

42. When the nominative singular ends in -a, the dative singular ends in -ae and the dative plural in -îs.

Note. Observe that the genitive singular, the dative singular, and the nominative plural all have the same ending, -ae; but the uses of the three cases are entirely different. The general meaning of the sentence usually makes clear which case is intended.

a. Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns: fuga, causa, fortûna, terra, aqua, puella, agricola, nauta, domina.

43. The Dative Relation. The dative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions to, towards, for.

These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion, such as She went to town, He ran towards the horse, Columbus sailed for America. In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as motion through space is foreign to the dative relation. But the dative is used to denote that to or towards which a benefit, injury, purpose, feeling, or quality is directed, or that for which something serves or exists.

a. What dative relations do you discover in the following?

The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all her questions—a good example for the rest of us. It is a pleasure to us to hear him recite. Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me. Some are fitted for one thing and others for another.

44. The Indirect Object. Examine the sentence

Nauta fugam nûntiat, the sailor announces the flight

Here the verb, nûntiat, governs the direct object, fugam, in the accusative case. If, however, we wish to mention the persons to whom the sailor announces the flight, as, The sailor announces the flight to the farmers, the verb will have two objects:

1. Its direct object, flight (fugam)2. Its indirect object, farmers

According to the preceding section, to the farmers is a relation covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule:

45. Rule. Dative Indirect Object. The indirect object of a verb is in the Dative.

a. The indirect object usually stands before the direct object.

46. We may now complete the translation of the sentence The sailor announces the flight to the farmers, and we have

Nauta agricolîs fugam nûntiat

47. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the possessor.

I. 1. Quis nautîs pecûniam dat? 2. Fîliae agricolae nautîs pecûniam dant. 3. Quis fortûnam pugnae nûntiat? 4. Galba agricolîs fortunam pugnae nûntiat. 5. Cui domina fâbulam nârrat? 6. Fîliae agricolae domina fâbulam nârrat. 7. Quis Diânae corônam dat? 8. Puella Diânae corônam dat quia Diânam amat. 9. Dea lûnae sagittâs portat et ferâs silvârum necat. 10. Cuius victôriam Galba nûntiat? 11. Nautae victôriam Galba nûntiat.

Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise.

II. 1. To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2. The girls give a wreath to Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3. The sailors tell the ladies2 a story, because the ladies love stories. 4. The farmer gives his (§ 22. a) daughter water. 5. Galba announces the cause of the battle to the sailor. 6. The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the forest. 7. Whose wreath is Latona carrying? Diana’s.

2. Observe that in English the indirect object often stands without a preposition to to mark it, especially when it precedes the direct object.

LESSON VI

FIRST PRINCIPLES (Continued)

48. The Ablative Case. Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the ab´la-tive.

49. When the nominative singular ends in -a, the ablative singular ends in -â and the ablative plural in -îs.

a. Observe that the final -a of the nominative is short, while the final -â of the ablative is long, as,

Nom. fîlia

Abl. fîliâ

b. Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural.

c. Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: fuga, causa, fortûna, terra, aqua, puella, agricola, nauta, domina.

50. The Ablative Relation. The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions from, with, by, at, in. It denotes

1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of which it is deprived—generally translated by from.

2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is done—translated by with or by.

3. The place where or the time when something happens—translated by in or at.

a. What ablative relations do you discover in the following?

In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight o’clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they study Latin with great zeal. In a short time they will be able to read with ease the books written by the Romans. By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome.

51. Prepositions. While, as stated above (§ 41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative.

52. Rule. Object of a Preposition. A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case.

53. Prepositions denoting the ablative relations from, with, in, on, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are

â1 or ab, from, away fromdê, from, down fromê1 or ex, from, out from, out ofcum, within, in, on

1. â and ê are used only before words beginning with a consonant; ab and ex are used before either vowels or consonants.

1. Translate into Latin, using prepositions. In the water, on the land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon.

54. Adjectives. Examine the sentence

Puella parva bonam deam amat, the little girl loves the good goddess

In this sentence parva (little) and bonam (good) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called adjectives,2 and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe.

2. Pick out the adjectives in the following: “When I was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter’s morning I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. ‘My pretty boy,’ said he, ‘has your father a grindstone?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ said I. ‘You are a fine little fellow,’ said he. ‘Will you let me grind my ax on it?’”

You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of parva shows that it belongs to puella, and the ending of bonam that it belongs to deam. Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called agreement. Observe that the adjective and its noun agree in number and case.

55. Examine the sentences

Puella est parva, the girl is littlePuella parva bonam deam amat, the little girl loves the good goddess

In the first sentence the adjective parva is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a predicate adjective. In the second sentence the adjectives parva and bonam are closely attached to the nouns puella and deam respectively, and are called attributive adjectives.

a. Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the following:

Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy.

56. DIALOGUE

Julia and Galba

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283.

I. Quis, Galba, est Diâna?G. Diâna, Iûlia, est pulchra dea lûnae et silvârum.I. Cuius fîlia, Galba, est Diâna?G. Lâtônae fîlia, Iûlia, est Diâna.I. Quid Diâna portat?G. Sagittâs Diâna portat.I. Cûr Diâna sagittâs portat?G. Diâna sagittâs portat, Iûlia, quod malâs ferâs silvae magnae necat.I. Amatne Lâtôna fîliam?G. Amat, et fîlia Lâtônam amat.I. Quid fîlia tua parva portat?G. Corônâs pulchrâs fîlia mea parva portat.I. Cui fîlia tua corônâs pulchrâs dat?G. Diânae corônâs dat.I. Quis est cum fîliâ tuâ? Estne sôla?G. Sôla nôn est; fîlia mea parva est cum ancillâ meâ.

a. When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the voc´ative (Latin vocâre, “to call"). In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative. In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. The Latin vocative rarely stands first. Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue.

b. Observe that questions answered by yes or no in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question Is the sailor fighting? Pugnatne nauta? you would say Pugnat, he is fighting, or Nôn pugnat, he is not fighting.

LESSON VII

THE FIRST OR Â-DECLENSION

57. In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a. All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in -a belong to the First Declension. It is also called the Â-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel a plays in the formation of the cases. We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These results are summarized in the following table:

Case

Noun

Translation

Use and General Meaning of Each Case

Singular

Nom.

do´min-a

the lady

The subject

Gen.

domin-ae

of the lady, or the lady’s

The possessor of something

Dat.

domin-ae

to or for the lady

Expressing the relation to or for, especially the indirect object

Acc.

domin-am

the lady

The direct object

Abl.

domin-â

from, with, by, in, the lady

Separation (from), association or means (with, by), place where or time when (in, at)

Plural

Nom.

domin-ae

the ladies

The same as the singular

Gen.

domin-â´rum

of the ladies, or the ladies’

Dat.

domin-îs

to or for the ladies

Acc.

domin-âs

the ladies

Abl.

domin-îs

from, with, by, in, the ladies

58. The Base. That part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the base.

Thus, in the declension above, domin- is the base and -a is the termination of the nominative singular.

59. Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally.

pugna, terra, lûna, ancil´la, corô´na, în´sula, silva

60. Gender. In English, names of living beings are either masculine or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called natural gender. Yet in English there are some names of things to which we refer as if they were feminine; as, “Have you seen my yacht? She is a beauty.” And there are some names of living beings to which we refer as if they were neuter; as, “Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken it home.” Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real gender, and this is called grammatical gender.

Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually masculine and of females feminine, but names of things have grammatical gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter. Thus we have in Latin the three words, lapis, a stone; rûpês, a cliff; and saxum, a rock. Lapis is masculine, rûpês feminine, and saxum neuter. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of the word, and must always be learned, for without knowing the gender it is impossible to write correct Latin.

61. Gender of First-Declension Nouns. Nouns of the first declension are feminine unless they denote males. Thus silva is feminine, but nauta, sailor, and agricola, farmer, are masculine.

62. EXERCISES

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

I. 1. Agricola cum fîliâ in casâ habitat. 2. Bona fîlia agricolae cênam parat. 3. Cêna est grâta agricolae1 et agricola bonam fîliam laudat. 4. Deinde fîlia agricolae gallînâs ad cênam vocat. 5. Gallînae fîliam agricolae amant. 6. Malae fîliae bonâs cênâs nôn parant. 7. Fîlia agricolae est grâta dominae. 8. Domina in însulâ magnâ habitat. 9. Domina bonae puellae parvae pecûniam dat.

II. 1. Where does the farmer live? 2. The farmer lives in the small cottage. 3. Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting (parat) a good dinner for the farmer. 6. The farmer praises the good dinner. 7. The daughter’s good dinner is pleasing to the farmer.

1. Note that the relation expressed by the dative case covers that to which a feeling is directed. (Cf. § 43.)

[Illustration: In front of a farmhouse: daughter feeding chickens, father holding a bowl, mother standing"]

What Latin words are suggested by this picture?

63. CONVERSATION

Answer the questions in Latin.

1. Quis cum agricolâ in casâ habitat?2. Quid bona fîlia agricolae parat?3. Quem agricola laudat?4. Vocatne fîlia agricolae gallînâs ad cênam?5. Cuius fîlia est grâta dominae?6. Cui domina pecûniam dat?

LESSON VIII

FIRST DECLENSION (Continued)

64. We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in case and in number (§ 54). They agree also in gender. In the phrase silva magna, we have a feminine adjective in -a agreeing with a feminine noun in -a.

65. Rule. Agreement of Adjectives. Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case.

66. Feminine adjectives in -a are declined like feminine nouns in -a, and you should learn to decline them together as follows:

Noun

Adjective

domina (base domin-), f., lady

bona (base bon-), good

Singular

Terminations

Nom.

do´mina

bona

-a

Gen.

dominae

bonae

-ae

Dat.

dominae

bonae

-ae

Acc.

dominam

bonam

-am

Abl.

dominâ

bonâ

-â

Plural

Terminations

Nom.

dominae

bonae

-ae

Gen.

dominâ´rum

bonâ´rum

-ârum

Dat.

dominîs

bonîs

-îs

Acc.

dominâs

bonâs

-âs

Abl.

dominîs

bonîs

-îs

a. In the same way decline together puella mala, the bad girl; ancil´la parva, the little maid; fortû´na magna, great fortune.

67. The words dea, goddess, and fîlia, daughter, take the ending -âbus instead of -îs in the dative and ablative plural. Note the dative and ablative plural in the following declension:

dea bona (bases de- bon-)

Singular

Plural

Nom.

dea bona

deae bonae

Gen.

deae bonae

deâ´rum bonâ´rum

Dat.

deae bonae

deâ´bus bonîs

Acc.

deam bonam

deâs bonâs

Abl.

deâ bonâ

dea´bus bonîs

a. In the same way decline together fîlîa parva.

68. Latin Word Order. The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same.

In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the sentence My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on my, daughter, dinner, farmers.

In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its ending (cf. § 32. 1), and not by its position, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare the sentences

I saw a game of football at Chicago last November (normal order)Last November I saw a game of football at ChicagoAt Chicago, last November, I saw a game of football

1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the first; next in importance is the last; the weakest point is the middle. Generally the subject is the most important word, and is placed first; usually the verb is the next in importance, and is placed last. The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order of their importance. Hence the normal order of words—that is, where no unusual emphasis is expressed—is as follows:

subject—modifiers of the subject—indirect object—direct object—adverb—verb

Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. Notice the order of the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are turning English into Latin.

2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as fîlia mea, my daughter; mea fîlia, my daughter; casa Galbae, Galba’s cottage; Galbae casa, Galba’s cottage.

Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following sentence in different ways:

Fîlia mea agricolîs cênam parat (normal order)Mea fîlia agricolîs parat cênam (mea and cênam emphatic)Agricolîs fîlia mea cênam parat (agricolîs emphatic)

3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated from its noun by other words.

Fîlia mea casam parvam nôn amat (parvam not emphatic)Fîlia mea parvam casam nôn amat (parvam more emphatic)Parvam fîlia mea casam nôn amat (parvam very emphatic)

4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English.

5. The copula (as est, sunt) is of so little importance that it frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds well.

69. EXERCISE

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284.

Note the order of the words in these sentences and pick out those that are emphatic.

1. Longae nôn sunt tuae viae. 2. Suntne tubae novae in meâ casâ? Nôn sunt. 3. Quis lâtâ in silvâ habitat? Diâna, lûnae clârae pulchra dea, lâtâ in silvâ habitat. 4. Nautae altâs et lâtâs amant aquâs. 5. Quid ancilla tua portat? Ancilla mea tubam novam portat. 6. Ubi sunt Lesbia et Iûlia? In tuâ casa est Lesbia et Iûlia est in meâ. 7. Estne Italia lâta terra? Longa est Italia, nôn lâta. 8. Cui Galba agricola fâbulam novam nârrat? Fîliâbus dominae clârae fâbulam novam nârrat. 9. Clâra est însula Sicilia. 10. Quem laudat Lâtôna? Lâtôna laudat fîliam.

First Review of Vocabulary and Grammar, §§ 502-505

LESSON IX

THE SECOND OR O-DECLENSION

70. Latin nouns are divided into five declensions.

The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender.

71. The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or O-Declension ends in -us, -er, -ir, or -um. The genitive singular ends in -î.

72. Gender. Nouns in -um are neuter. The others are regularly masculine.

73. Declension of nouns in -us and -um. Masculines in -us and neuters in -um are declined as follows:

dominus (base domin-), m., master

pîlum (base pîl-), n., spear

Singular

Terminations

Terminations

Nom.

do´minus1

-us

pîlum

-um

Gen.

dominî

-î

pîlî

-î

Dat.

dominô

-ô

pîlô

-ô

Acc.

dominum

-um

pîlum

-um

Abl.

dominô

-ô

pîlô

-ô

Voc.

domine

-e

pîlum

-um

Plural

Nom.

dominî

-î

pîla

-a

Gen.

dominô´rum

-ôrum

pîlô´rum

-ôrum

Dat.

dominîs

-îs

pîlîs

-îs

Acc.

dominôs

-ôs

pîla

-a

Abl.

dominîs

-îs

pîlîs

-îs

1. Compare the declension of domina and of dominus.

a. Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative and accusative plural.

b. The vocative singular of words of the second declension in -us ends in -e, as domine, O master; serve, O slave. This is the most important exception to the rule in § 56. a.

74. Write side by side the declension of domina, dominus, and pîlum. A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions:

a. The vocative, with a single exception (see § 73. b), is like the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative plural.

b. The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are alike, and in the plural end in -a.

c. The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in -m and the accusative plural in -s.

d. The dative and ablative plural are always alike.

e. Final -i and -o are always long; final -a is short, except in the ablative singular of the first declension.

75. Observe the sentences

Lesbia est bona, Lesbia is goodLesbia est ancilla, Lesbia is a maidservant

We have learned (§ 55) that bona, when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a predicate adjective. Similarly a noun, as ancilla, used in the predicate to define the subject is called a predicate noun.

76. Rule. Predicate Noun. A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb.

[Illustration: spearsCaption: PILA]

77. DIALOGUE

[Illustration: officer with spear and trumpetCaption: LEGATUS CUM PILO ET TUBA

Galba and Marcus

First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285.