ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION E-Book

Gareth Davies

• Herausgeber: Crowood
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

Organic Vegetable Production provides an invaluable, practical guide to the production of organic vegetables across a range of organic farming systems in temperate areas. The book covers all aspects of production, including crop choice, fertility building and weed, pest and disease management within a framework of rotation design and business planning. The specific needs of a range of commonly grown vegetable crops are discussed in detail. The authors consider that knowledge-gathering, marketing and financial management are integral parts of organic vegetable production and these subjects are examined in depth. Speciality topics as protected cropping and storage are covered. The book highlights the technical and economic consequences of converting from conventional to organic production and the challenges that can arise.

Leseprobe

Organic Vegetable Production

A COMPLETE GUIDE

Edited by Gareth Davies and Margi Lennartsson

In association with Garden Organic

Copyright

First published in 2005 by The Crowood Press Ltd Ramsbury, Marlborough Wiltshire SN8 2HR

www.crowood.com

This impression 2012

© Garden Organic (formerly The Henry Doubleday Research Association) 2005

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 84797 440 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The editors wish to thank the numerous people involved in bringing this book to publication and we are grateful to all of the authors for their numerous contributions. In writing and editing the book we have drawn on our collective experience in organic research over the previous decade or so and as such we have relied on the knowledge, experience and advice of many people in the ‘organic movement’ and beyond. To them all, too numerous to mention, we would say thank you. A special mention must go to DEFRA whose funding for organic research has underpinned much of Garden Organic’s (formerly HDRA) research work. We would also especially like to thank all the organic farmers and growers with whom Garden Organic has worked, and who have willingly contributed their stories, knowledge, experience and time to our research programme. They have made a real contribution to the information contained in this book, and without them the book would not have been possible.

Garden Organic – formerly the Henry Doubleday Research Association

Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Foreword Roger Hitchings, OAS

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Chapter 1 – Organic Principles for Growing Vegetables

Gareth Davies, Margi Lennartsson

Principles for organic agriculture

Certification of organic farming systems

Characteristics of organic farming systems

Aim of book

Chapter 2 – Organic Vegetable Production Systems

Anton Rosenfeld, Phil Sumption, Gareth Davies

Vegetable production systems

Advantages and disadvantages of the various systems

Conversion to organic vegetable production

Chapter 3 – Crops, Seed and Varieties

Gareth Davies, Phil Sumption, Simon Harlock, Thalia Nunis

Variety traits for organic production

Vegetable crops and varieties

Variety trialling

Organic seed- and plant-raising

Chapter 4 – Fertility Building

Paul Gosling, Francis Rayns

What is soil fertility?

Managing soil fertility

Chapter 5 – Weed Management

Becky Turner

Cultural controls

Farm hygiene

Tillage

Direct controls

Chapter 6 – Pest and Disease Management

Gareth Davies

Pest- and disease-management concepts for organic production

Pest- and disease-management practices

Grower strategies for managing pests and diseases

Chapter 7 – Field Management and Rotations

Thalia Nunis, Simon Harlock

Principles of good organic management

Rotations

General note on machinery

Chapter 8 – Protected Cropping

Phil Sumption

Types of protective cropping

Cropping

Other considerations

Chapter 9 – Harvest, Transport and Storage

Gareth Davies, Chris Firth

Reasons for storing crops

Avoiding storage problems

Storage methods for organic vegetables

Alternative storage and preservation methods

Chapter 10 – The Vegetable Market and Marketing

Natalie Geen, Chris Firth

Development of the organic vegetable market in the UK

The different market channels

Descriptions of market outlets

Marketing advice and grants

Future perspectives and market trends

Chapter 11 – Farm Economics and Business Planning

Miguel Brandão, Ulrich Schmutz, Chris Firth

Basic farm economics

Economic analysis methods

Economics of organic vegetable growing

Chapter 12 – Vegetable Crops for Organic Production

Phil Sumption, Thalia Nunis, Anton Rosenfeld, Gareth Davies

Leafy salads

Leaf and flower vegetables

Fruit vegetables

Pod and grain vegetables

Bulb and stem vegetables

Root vegetables

Perennial vegetables

Chapter 13 – Sources of Information and Advice

Gareth Davies, Phil Sumption

Information channels

Sources of information

Using information

Chapter 14 – Future Prospects

Margi Lennartsson, Gareth Davies, Chris Firth

Further Reading

Useful Addresses

Index

Foreword

It is a matter of history that the production of organic vegetables did much to lay the foundations for what is now a significant market for all types of organic produce. The appearance of organic carrots on the shelves of a major supermarket in 1985 was for many consumers their first encounter with organic produce. Over the intervening years organic vegetables (and to some extent fruit) have provided an entry point to the organic market for many thousands of consumers, and for some they represent the only organic produce they recognize and buy. Organic vegetable sales do not dominate the market as they did in those early days, but they are still extremely important and significant.

Contrary to some popular perception in past years organic vegetable production is not about ‘muck and magic’, though of course muck can sometimes play a significant role if properly sourced and composted. It is crucially dependent on hard work, attention to detail and an ability to face the slings and arrows of the marketplace with determination and persistence. It is also crucially important to have a good understanding of basic horticultural processes and techniques. In adopting an organic approach to food production, growers also need to have a good understanding of the relationships in the system and how to balance them for maximum effect. These might include relationships between predators and pests, soil structure and biological activity, weeds and bio-diversity, among many others.

From the early days to the present time information was and is a key commodity for new entrants to the industry, both converting conventional growers and established organic producers. The sector is more complex than any other given the range of crops grown, the varying degrees of intensity of production and the wide range of soils in which crops are grown. This last topic is set to become even more important given the increasing importance of local production for local markets. Historically, information on organic vegetable growing has been largely based on grower experience. This was a contributory factor in the establishment of the Organic Growers Association in 1979, a role that has been superseded by its absorption into Soil Association Producer Services in 1991. The need for information and advice was also instrumental in the setting up of the Organic Advisory Service at Elm Farm Research Centre. OAS horticultural advisors are still actively providing a service to the industry today.

Grower experience has also played a very important role in what has been a relatively small number of books published so far aimed at the commercial organic grower. These books have played and continue to play an important role in the provision of information. The book that you are about to read represents a step forward in that it combines grower experiences with a wealth of information gleaned from the many research and development projects undertaken by the HDRA over the last 10–15 years. These projects have covered a range of topics that includes variety trials, green manures, soil fertility, nutrient management, field-scale conversion, weed management, pest and disease control, and many more. Several of these projects have involved growers across the country on holdings of varying size and supplying all levels of the market. This book represents a unique bringing together of information by a committed team of researchers and advisors. You may sit down and read it from cover to cover or, more likely, you will use it as a work of reference that informs all aspects of the process of successfully producing organic vegetables on a commercial holding. However you approach it, you will find it very useful.

Roger Hitchings

Head of Advisory Services, Elm Farm Research Centre

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ACOS – Advisory Committee on Organic Standards

ADAS – formerly Agricultural Development and Advisory Service

COSI – Centre for Organic Seed Information (now defunct)

CSL – Central Science Laboratories (see FERA)

DEFRA – Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

EFRC – Elm Farm Research Centre (see ORC)

ERDP – England Rural Development Programme

FERA – Food and Environment research Agency (formerly CSL)

FYM – farmyard manure

HDC – Horticultural Development Company

HDRA – HDRA: the Organic Organization (now Garden Organic)

IFOAM – International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements

NIAB – formerly National Institute of Agricultural Botany

OAS – Organic Advisory Service

OCIS – Organic Conversion Information Service

OCW – Organic Centre Wales

OELS – Organic Entry Level Scheme

ORC – Organic Research Centre (formerly EFRC)

RES – Rural Enterprise Scheme

SA – Soil Association

UKAS – United Kingdom Accreditation Service

UKROFS – United Kingdom Register of Organic Food Standards

Warwick HRI – Horticulture Research International, University of Warwick

Chapter 1

Organic Principles for Growing Vegetables

Organic agriculture is a system of food production that acknowledges the importance of biodiversity, soil biological activity and biological cycles. It aims to enhance and develop these as an integral part of the food-production system. Organic systems also recognize that human health is linked to the type and quality of the food that people eat and that this, in turn, can be directly linked to the health of plants and animals that provide this food and, ultimately, to the well-being of the soil on which all agricultural production depends. Organic agriculture also regards animal welfare and human social well-being as integral to agricultural production. The many, diverse, organic farming systems share similar practices or characteristics that stem from this underlying viewpoint. More recently, these perspectives are increasingly being set out as ‘organic principles’ or even legal requirements. The principles are briefly described below in order to provide the framework for understanding many of the practices for organic vegetable-production described in the subsequent chapters.

PRINCIPLES FOR ORGANIC AGRICULTURE

The general principles and ideas underlying organic agriculture are now, at least superficially, well known. In restating these principles, we have largely followed those developed by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM). These are not intended to be a proscriptive recipe for organic farming but a flexible set of principles that can be adapted to local circumstances. IFOAM does not prioritize any of the principles and recognizes that they are all important. According to IFOAM, the principles are that organic agriculture should:

• produce sufficient quantities of high-quality food, fibre and other products

• work compatibly with natural cycles and living systems through the soil, plants and animals in the entire production system

• recognize the wider social and ecological impact of and within the organic production and processing system

• maintain and increase long-term fertility and biological activity of soils using locally adapted cultural, biological and mechanical methods – as opposed to relying on inputs

• maintain and encourage agricultural and natural biodiversity of the farm and its surroundings through the use of sustainable production systems and the protection of plant and wildlife habitats

• maintain and conserve genetic diversity through attention to on-farm management of genetic resources

• promote the responsible use and conservation of water and all life therein

• use, as far as possible, renewable resources in production and processing systems and avoid pollution and waste

• foster local and regional production and distribution

• create a harmonious balance between crop production and animal husbandry

• provide living conditions that allow animals to express the basic aspects of their innate behaviour

• utilize biodegradable, recyclable and recycled packaging materials

• provide everyone involved in organic farming and processing with a quality of life that satisfies their basic needs, within a safe, secure and healthy working environment

• support the establishment of an entire production, processing and production chain that is both socially just and ecologically responsible

• recognize the importance of, and protect and learn from, indigenous knowledge and traditional farming systems.

More recently IFOAM has attempted to summarize these principals as:

• the principle of health: organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal and human as one and indivisible

• the ecological principle: organic agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, and emulate and help sustain them

• the principle of fairness: organic agriculture should be built upon relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities

• the principle of care: agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment.

The principles flow from an underlying world-view of what agriculture can and should set out to achieve. In a sense, these could be said to be ‘ideals’. It is from these ideals that sets of organic standards, against which individual farm systems can be compared, have been drawn up, which has led to the concept of certified organic farming systems.

CERTIFICATION OF ORGANIC FARMING SYSTEMS

Certification of organic farming systems has arisen as a means of evaluating working practices of farmers and processors, to assess whether they are applying and adhering to organic standards – hence following organic principles – in their production systems. Generally, the aim is to certify the production system rather than the end product, although, in the eyes of the consumer at the end of a long food-chain, this is often overlooked. Certification is, therefore, a means of ensuring the integrity of organic products and has subsequently become subject to legal codification (see below). Consumers are assured that certified organic produce has been produced, stored, processed, handled and marketed in accordance with organic standards, or technical specifications, which have been certified as organic by a recognized body.

In the UK and across Europe, there are numerous organic certification bodies. These interpret and codify organic principles in ‘organic standards’. Obviously there will be slight differences, even within countries, in the detail of the standards as interpreted by each certification body. As a minimum, they do have to conform to EU and national laws (see below) for organic production and processing. In the UK, organic certification bodies conform to the Advisory Committee on Organic Standards (ACOS) standards, which are based on the EU law (regulation 2092/91 and amendments), and, in turn, they are approved by ACOS as certification bodies. ACOS is a non-executive non-departmental public body within the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), which advises ministers on matters related to organic standards. It was preceded by the United Kingdom Register of Organic Food Standards (UKROFS).

Legal Requirements

In 1993, EC Council Regulation 2092/91 became effective across the EU and, since that time, organic food production has been legally regulated in the EU. Regulation 2092/91 sets out the inputs and practices that may be used in organic farming and growing, and defines the inspection system that must be put in place to ensure this. This regulation also applies to processing, processing aids and ingredients in organic foods. Therefore, all foods sold as organic must originate from growers, processors and importers who are registered with an approved certification body and subject to regular inspection. Regulation 2092/91 has formed the basis for UK organic standards, initially in the form of UKROFS standards. These have been replaced by the Compendium of UK Organic Standards.

Practical Requirements

All organic producers have to be registered with a certifying body, and be ‘certified’ in order to sell their produce as organic. The government, through the government Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and the United Kingdom Accreditation Service (UKAS), oversees an increasing number of these inspection or certification bodies (thirteen as of December 2004). Each inspection body has its own set of organic standards that have to conform to the EU law, which, in turn, sets the legal standards. Some certification bodies may operate standards that are ‘stricter’ than this official or legal minimum, but these differences are generally more pronounced in the livestock sections of the standards than in the horticulture sector.

The process of certification involves some form of farm visit by inspectors of the certifying body, in which the production system is visually inspected, together with a review of the business practice and accounts, normally on an annual basis. It is the role of the inspection body to ensure that growers follow the set standards, so that consumers can have confidence in the authenticity of organic food. Testing of the soil or produce is not generally part of the process, though the certifying body can employ it if a problem is suspected. Detailed and accurate record-keeping is absolutely fundamental to the operation and inspection of organic systems.

Once certified, growers have the right to use the certifying agency’s label. This enables the consumer to find out under what conditions they can expect their food to have been produced by consulting the certifier’s standards.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIC FARMING SYSTEMS

Whilst there might seem to be a growing body of rules and regulations surrounding organic agriculture, the principles and the practice work to ensure that certified organic farming systems share certain characteristics. We have described these briefly below, so as not to loose sight of what features of organic systems are important for all stakeholders, be they farmers, processors or consumers.

Organic farming systems are generally working towards increasing biodiversity. Biodiversity aids production through many biological services, such as pollination, natural pest-control and erosion control. Organic farmers are generally interested in building biodiversity into their farming systems and consumers desire the type of food and the landscapes this creates. Elements in farming systems that enhance biodiversity include rotations, intercropping and sensitive habitat-management and many of these are described in this book.

Organic farming systems are working towards integrating economic, environmental and social sustainability into their farm systems. Sustainability recognizes that there are limits to growth in a finite ecosystem and that the goal of food-production systems should be to develop ecological and social resources that maintain or enhance our future ability to produce food, either for future generations or ourselves. This naturally means that organic farmers should be working towards reducing external inputs, be it fuel or feedstuff, into their farm systems and looking to produce all resources within the farm boundaries or near locality.

Organic farming systems generally concentrate on maintaining a healthy and fertile soil, capable of supplying adequate and natural nutrition to crop plants. This has many beneficial effects throughout the whole farm system and many of the techniques for maintaining soil fertility are alluded to in later chapters. Many organic proponents, including the founders of the modern organic movement like Eve Balfour, go further and make a link between a biologically healthy soil, the production of wholesome food and, ultimately, human health.

Organic farming systems rely on natural nutrient-cycles to provide crop nutrition and more natural, preventative methods of pest, disease and weed management. In both cases organic farmers rely on natural ecological processes to provide services that are normally bought in as ‘inputs’ in conventional farming systems. In practice, organic farming strictly restricts the use of artificial chemical fertilizers and synthetic pesticides. Animals are reared without the routine use of drugs, antibiotics and de-wormers and should be allowed to display more natural behaviours.

Biodiverse, sustainable farming systems naturally lead to diverse farm enterprises. Organic farmers often integrate various farm enterprises and, typically, organic farms run more complex and labour-intensive farm operations. Many are also involved in more direct marketing of produce to local consumers and even, in some cases, linking consumers with crop production. Such diverse enterprises are also capable of meeting many of the social principles of organic farming and wider rural development initiatives.

An organic farm is part of the ecological and social landscape

Above all, most practitioners of organic agriculture would describe their practices as holistic. That is, integrating the various practices and management methods so that the farm operation becomes a system of interlocking and interactive parts that work together.

AIM OF BOOK

The subsequent chapters of this book aim to give an overview of current, appropriate, practice in organic vegetable and potato production systems. It will cover the general principles of organic-vegetable production, starting with an overview of organic vegetable production systems in the UK and the conversion of conventional to organic production practices, in the latter case indicating potential problems that might arise. It will then develop the key production themes, including crops, fertility building, weed-control and pest and disease management. These themes have then been brought together under a series of chapters that consider the practical farm-management aspects of production, including planning for successful rotations, marketing and practical vegetable production from the point of view of specific crops, highlighting the specific characteristics or requirements of various crop-types. The book will also briefly consider post-harvest aspects, such as storage and protected cropping – increasingly important as techniques for extending the marketing season. The penultimate chapter looks at the importance of acquiring knowledge, together with potential sources of information and advice, before a final chapter that develops a brief overview of likely future trends. In Further Reading and Useful Addresses, sources of information are also provided.

Chapter 2

Organic Vegetable Production Systems

Organic vegetables are grown in a wide range of organic farm systems. Whilst it is generally recognized that each organic farm is, in many senses, unique, it is also possible to classify various broad types of farming systems in which organic vegetables are likely to be produced. This can give a useful indication of the opportunities that exist for growing organic vegetables. It is also helpful because the type of system will, to some extent, dictate the management options open in any particular situation.

The previous chapter has described the principles that underlie the design of organic farming systems. As a consequence of these principles (and the standards based on them), crop rotation is usually seen as the heart of any organic farming system. Here we categorize the organic farming systems in which organic vegetables are generally grown into four broad categories, based on the type of rotation, and briefly examine each. These are intensive vegetable rotations, arable and vegetable rotations, mixed-farming rotations and novel or non-traditional systems. An outline scheme or rotation for each system is given and then the management, agronomic and marketing factors of each are briefly touched upon. Many of these aspects are developed in more detail in forthcoming chapters.

All organic vegetable systems need to be legally certified and, in order to achieve this status, all farms will need to undergo a period of conversion to organic production. This conversion phase is a period that can involve a considerable amount of investment, both in equipment and learning. The various issues that are likely to arise during conversion are discussed in the latter part of the chapter.

VEGETABLE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Intensive Vegetable Systems

Only vegetables (in a broad sense) are grown in intensive vegetable systems and no arable or livestock are included in the rotation. A typical system (seeFig. 2.1) may be based on a four- or five-year rotation with a one- or two-year fertility-building phase.

Figure 2.1 A typical intensive vegetable rotation

No vegetables or cash crop are grown in the fertility-building phase, only species that fix nitrogen, such as clover or vetch, in order to replenish soil fertility. Nitrogen-fixing plants are commonly grown in combination with nitrogen-lifting plants in this phase. The latter are deep-rooting plants, often grass species, which take up nitrogen and prevent it from being leached out of the rooting zone and also add to the soil organic-matter. The most common combinations are grass and clover, and grazing rye and vetch. In the absence of grazing, such crops will need to be mown frequently during the summer and the cuttings left on the field.

Vegetables are grown in the remaining part of the rotation. Crops with high demand for nitrogen, such as brassicas or potatoes, are normally grown in the first year after fertility building. In the second year, crops with a lower demand for nitrogen, such as carrots, onions, leeks or celery, are grown. A third year of vegetable cropping may include beans or sweetcorn.

Such rotations are typical of high-value land suited to vegetable production, such as the fen-type soils found in Lincolnshire or Lancashire. Paradoxically, such farming systems are often suited to either very small or very large producers.

Small market-gardens or smallholdings are most likely to adopt the intensive vegetable system and sell produce directly through farmers’ markets or to local wholesalers. Such a marketing system has the advantage of having a short supply chain, so that the grower retains a higher proportion of the retail price. Small market-gardens often grow a wide diversity of crops in small areas. Although this is labour intensive, diversity has the advantage of preventing the spread of pests and diseases and reduces the impact of crop failure. The disadvantage of such systems is that local markets can only accept limited volumes of produce and so it is unsuitable for larger farms.

Large-scale field vegetable production systems usually sell produce to packers who supply supermarkets, as these are the only outlets that will accept large volumes of produce. These systems will have all the advantages of economies of scale and will often have the capital to invest in considerable mechanization, thereby increasing the efficiency of production. The disadvantages of selling produce to packers are that the supply chain is longer and the grower usually receives a lower price. Quality standards are often very stringent, so the risk of a crop being rejected is high. This is compounded by the fact that supermarkets often over-programme to ensure that sufficient produce is available. The resulting glut in the market puts packers in a position to reject a crop on seemingly superficial grounds.

Arable Rotations Including Vegetables

Arable rotations incorporating vegetable production can span a range of systems, from those that are predominantly arable to those that are predominantly vegetable production systems. At the one extreme the rotation may be similar to that of the intensive vegetable production system (described above), except that a cereal crop, often under-sown with the fertility building crop, will generally be incorporated at the end of the vegetable production phase. At the other extreme, an organic vegetable crop, often potatoes or brassicas, are grown in an arable rotation of cereal, beans and fertility-building leys (seeFig. 2.2).

At these extremes the cereal or vegetable crop respectively acts as a break crop in the rotation. Such rotations may be on lower-grade land not so suited for intensive growing of high-value horticultural crops. It may include farms on heavier soils that are not so suitable for growing root crops. In a predominantly arable system, irrigation facilities may not be available, which would preclude the growing of certain types of vegetable crops. Due to the nature of growing combinable crops, this type of system is obviously not suitable for market-garden-scale enterprises but will be found on medium- or large-scale holdings. Despite a drop in the price of cereals in 2002, the market is now growing and it is likely to increase further after 2005, when the derogation allowing a proportion of non-organic feed in organic systems was lifted.

Figure 2.2 An arable rotation that includes vegetables

Mixed Rotations

Mixed rotations are essentially arable rotations that include vegetables and livestock (seeFig. 2.3). In this case the fertility-building period is usually used for silage production and for grazing. They can also include dairy systems with at least semi-permanent pasture. These farming systems also have readily available supplies of animal manure, slurry and bedding, which is a valuable resource for soil fertility management.

Traditionally, livestock systems will be on poorer quality land found in the wetter regions of the country, such as the North West and Wales. Such systems include a range of farm sizes, although a minimum area will be required to allow rotational grazing and include a minimum economic herd size. Such a system must include considerations such as the distance to the nearest organic abattoir.

Novel and Traditional Vegetable-Production Systems

With the development of the environmental and sustainability movements in recent decades, coupled to development of movements that promote alternative lifestyles, a range of novel ‘organic’-farming systems have become increasingly recognized. Many of these systems arise either from philosophical reflection or through trying to put ecological theory into practice, or a combination of the two. Most of these systems represent a development of organic principles as applied to both agriculture and social systems, often called agroecology. Three of these are mentioned below. Traditional vegetable production systems still exist over large parts of the world and their relationship to organic production is touched upon below.

Figure 2.3 A possible mixed-livestock system that includes vegetables

Parsnips and pigs, a mixed-farm landscape

Biodynamic Agriculture

Based on the teachings of the philosopher Rudolf Steiner, biodynamics is a method of agriculture that seeks to actively work with the health-giving forces of nature. It pre-dates, but has been somewhat overtaken by, organic agriculture. Steiner elaborated a philosophical approach to life (called anthroposophy) that emphasized many of the forces within living nature; identifying many of these factors and describing specific practices and preparations that enable the farmer or gardener to work in concert with these forces. Biodynamic farmers need to learn about the underlying philosophy and apply it to their farming practices. The biodynamic agronomic system is underpinned by a more rigorous and spiritual set of beliefs, which make it less susceptible to the diluting influences that have taken a toll in some areas of organic production, and will therefore be of great interest to the more purist elements of the organic movement.

However, from an agricultural point of view, biodynamics is often seen as ‘organics plus’, as biodynamic farmers follow all the practices of general organic growing, as well as some more esoteric ones of their own. In any case, vegetables would normally only comprise a small part of a biodynamic farm system. Biodynamic farmers take a more spiritual attitude towards nature and try to capture energy forces in various preparations that they produce and which are sprayed in extremely diluted forms (almost homeopathically) onto the land, crops or compost heaps. A great deal of attention is also paid to the energy of the wider universe and detailed calendars are published annually that map out the best times of day (or night) for performing plant-care activities, especially planting and harvesting, in accordance with the phases of the moon. A significant practical difference between organic and biodynamic agriculture is the use of compost. Biodynamic farmers compost all waste-materials with the relevant preparations to activate and enhance the process before adding them to the soil. The biodynamic standards also stipulate that open-pollinated varieties should be used, preferably those propagated in biodynamic systems. This has led to biodynamic farmers becoming involved in plant breeding programmes on their own farms.

Agroforestry

Agroforestry is the growing of arable and/or horticultural crops together with trees or shrubs on the same piece of land – they often include livestock as well. Agroforestry systems differ from traditional forestry and agriculture by concentrating on the interactions between various system components, therefore taking an organic or holistic approach. Such systems can be designed to provide tree and other crop products at the same time as protecting, conserving, diversifying and sustaining economic, environmental and social resources. Agroforestry, therefore, involves combining tree planting with other enterprises, such as grazing animals or cropping, and should produce a range of products, like firewood, biomass, mulch, fodder and other traditional forestry products (such as wood and nuts). At the same time, the trees can also shelter livestock from wind or sun, provide wildlife habitat, control soil erosion and even, in some cases, fix nitrogen to improve soil fertility.

Vegetable production would normally be only a small part of an agroforestry system, which can include silvopasture (mixing trees with pasture and/or forage), silvoarable (mixing trees and arable or horticultural crops), forest farming (cultivating high-value products in forested areas) and forest gardening (producing many products in a complex forest-environment). Techniques include alleycropping (growing crops in alleys between trees), intercropping and using trees as design elements, such as windbreaks, shelterbelts, woodlots and riparian buffer strips. Contour plantings for erosion control and fertility plantings of nitrogen-fixing trees are also possible options.

Permaculture

Permaculture (a contraction of the words ‘permanent agriculture’) is a system for the designed integration of landscape and people in order to provide food, energy, shelter and other material and non-material needs in a sustainable way. The ethical basis of permaculture rests upon a care of the earth and developing a system in which all life can thrive. As a technique, permaculture derives inspiration and principles from the study of natural systems; it therefore represents a conscious attempt to design and maintain agriculturally productive ecosystems that have the diversity, stability and resilience of natural ecosystems. It often takes the form of an integrated, evolving system of perennial or self-perpetuating plant and animal species, together with human settlements or communities, organized with the goal of producing an efficient, low-maintenance farming system. This integrates plants, animals, people and structures on all scales from home gardens through to large farms and watersheds. Vegetable production would normally only be a small, but vital, part of such a system. It is represented by a worldwide movement of designers, teachers and grassroots activists working to establish communities that restore or enhance natural ecosystems.

There is great emphasis on practices such as rainwater harvesting, reusing greywater, minimizing the need for irrigation, soil management, maximizing the use of perennial plants and intercropping (see agroforestry above), recycling all wastes and producing as many inputs (including sustainable energy, biofuels and fencing and construction materials, as well as manures and composts) as possible on site. The theory is applicable to urban as well as rural settings and much is made of urban and suburban food-production possibilities, although obviously there are constraints on how comprehensively the full philosophy can be adopted in those settings. Many of the agricultural techniques are standard practice in organic crop-production, such as the use of green manures and mulching, promoting biodiversity, companion planting, attracting predators, careful rotation of crops and extensive animal foraging. However, from an agricultural point of view, one major criticism is the suitability of agroforestry or perennial systems in a temperate climate. In warmer climates, such as that of Australia, where the system was developed, not only is the season longer but growth rates are also faster and light-intensity levels higher, making the techniques promoted by the permaculture system much more productive. Many of these issues are, however, being addressed in the UK by a growing band of enthusiastic permaculture practitioners.

Traditional Vegetable-Production Systems

In addition to these novel systems, traditional agricultural systems, including large land-areas in the developing world, as well as smaller allotment- or garden-areas in the developed world, have been increasingly recognized as well adapted for low input and sustainable agricultural systems in their own right. Many of these systems include an element of intensive vegetable production. Whilst many of these are not certified as organic in any sense, it is being increasingly recognized that they could benefit from application of organic principles, especially in the area of soil fertility and pest management. Organic methods are becoming a popular starting point for helping to develop many of these systems to meet both crop production and socio-economic goals. For instance, allotment projects have figured prominently in urban regeneration and social-inclusion projects in parts of the UK.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE VARIOUS SYSTEMS

Management Factors

It is possible to grow organic vegetables in all the system types and each has its benefits and pitfalls in terms of management. Rotations that include livestock have the big advantage that fertility is sourced from within the farm. Grazing of livestock can also be used to maintain grass/clover leys, eliminating the need for mowing. The arable part of the rotation can also be used as a source of feed. The length of time spent in the fertility-building phase is dependent on the area of vegetables being grown in relation to the whole-farm size. In many cases where a smaller area of vegetables is grown on a larger mixed farm, the best fields can be selected for vegetable production. This system also permits a good deal of flexibility. An intensive vegetable production system or an arable system with only one year’s fertility building does not allow so much flexibility, as the majority of the system is in production at any one time. Close attention must also be paid to the management of the fertility-building crops, as a poor ley can have a detrimental effect on subsequent crops for a number of years.

Agronomic Factors

The exact nature of the rotations in organic farming systems will depend on a combination of many factors, including vegetable crops grown, the markets and the location. Rotations are generally unique to each farm and will frequently be changed to fit the circumstances. For example, growers in the south-west who specialize in the niche market for winter cauliflower and early potatoes may practise the rotation shown in Fig. 2.4. This rotation has arisen to fit the needs of the specialist niche-market crops. The winter cauliflower can be planted after the early potatoes have been harvested, whilst a spring cereal can be planted immediately after the harvesting of the winter cauliflower.

Stockless systems are heavily dependent on fertility-building crops to restore the nutrient status of the soil. In many cases, additional nutrients will have to be supplied through the addition of farmyard manure (FYM) that will have to be sourced externally. It is essential that a local source of FYM is readily available on such farms, or an alternative such as green-waste compost. FYM from conventional farms can be used, provided it is declared GM-free and has been composted for at least three months or stacked for six.

Each type of system also brings advantages and disadvantages with respect to pests, diseases and weeds. Long-term grass/clover leys may lead to a build up of wireworms that can cause problems in subsequent potato crops. They are also likely to build up a population of slugs on heavier clay soils. In terms of weeds, all types of rotations have the benefit of breaking cycles of annual weeds, as different planting arrangements and different cultivations for each crop favour different weed types. However, systems with extended periods of grassland may lead to a build up of docks. Animals grazing can have a beneficial effect on controlling weeds and some may be very suited for controlling particular weeds, for example, pigs clearing fields of volunteer potatoes.

Figure 2.4 An example of a rotation growing early potatoes/winter cauliflower, a speciality or niche market

Economic Factors

The economics of organic farming should be considered in terms of the whole system and not just one particular crop. In stockless systems, the length of the fertility-building phase determines the proportion of land that is out of production at any one time. It is also important to remember that considerable resources may be required for managing the fertility-building crop. For example, if the ground is dry at sowing, then irrigation may be necessary for proper establishment, as a poor stand in a fertility-building crop may result in nutrient deficiency in subsequent crops. A shorter fertility-building phase in one year means that a greater proportion of the system is devoted to income-generating crops, but may not always be adequate for restoring fertility within the system. In theory, grazing livestock should make economic sense, as the fertility-building phase is being put to economic use and the livestock is generating another source of fertility as FYM. However, in the current economic climate, many organic-livestock enterprises, particularly pigs and dairy, are running at a loss and farmers have found that it is no longer economic to maintain them in the system. Livestock also require a considerable amount of management time and this can have a detrimental knock-on effect on horticultural crops, which can also require considerable management input.

CONVERSION TO ORGANIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

The term organic has been defined in European legislation since 1991 and all foods sold as organic have to be certified by a recognized inspection body, as described in Chapter 1. The purpose of the conversion phase is to provide a period of time to establish organic management practices, to build soil fertility and to develop a viable and sustainable agro-ecosystem. Conversion periods are generally two years for grassland and annual-cropping land, and three years for perennial crops in the ground. The certifying bodies have the discretion to shorten the conversion period by up to four months, but this will only be agreed if accurate field records are available and that inspection confirms that no prohibited inputs have been used in the run-up to the start of the conversion process.

Deciding to Convert

Factors to Consider

The decision to convert is often influenced by environmental and/or philosophical motives, but economic factors, related to confidence in the organic market and the state of conventional agriculture, are also important. Consequently, a wide range of factors need to be taken into account before deciding to convert a particular farm or farm system and the ease of conversion will depend on specific farm situations. Here we can only summarize some of the more basic questions that should be asked and these include (roughly in order of importance):

What experience does the grower, or any staff, have of vegetable growing or organic systems? It is a harsh reality that growing organic vegetables is not an easy option and those with prior experience of growing vegetables commercially have tended to adapt more quickly to organic production methods. A considerable amount of effort can be invested in changing management methods during the conversion period and staff may need to be well motivated to see such changes through.

Is the business in good heart economically? Investment is often required, particularly for weed-control equipment, and more will be required if vegetables have not been previously grown or if changes to the marketing are undertaken, for example, packing facilities, vans for distribution. It is important to have a marketing strategy for your organic vegetables. Although government support is often available for conversion, for instance through the Organic Entry Level Scheme (OELS) in the UK, income will be foregone during the conversion period. This is especially true if the land has been under exploitative cropping (such as cereals) and has to begin with a two year fertility-building phase.

What is the market for the organic vegetables? The market is crucial when considering conversion and market research is essential. It is important to have identified potential markets prior to committing land to conversion. The mid-nineties saw many large arable and vegetable producers convert when the market appeared wide open and government grants for organic conversion first appeared. Subsequently the market has slowed and shows signs of becoming saturated, as produce from these conversions has reached the organic market and prices have dropped for many crops, such as potatoes and cabbage. However, there are still opportunities for certain crops, early and late in the season, and in the wholesale and direct-marketing sector. For new growers entering the market, it can be a lot of work establishing new markets. However, established growers have often been able to use their existing outlets for their produce and these have sometimes been the driver for conversion. In certain areas, producer co-ops exist, such as EOSTRE (based in East Anglia), and they can play a crucial role in developing the organic market, in areas such as public procurement of organic food, and for gaining access to larger markets that might otherwise not be available. Establishing direct-marketing schemes, such as box or community-supported agriculture schemes, is also very time consuming and there is now also a considerable amount of competition in some parts of the country. It is wise to start on a small scale and build up as skills are developed. It is generally true that a diversity of marketing options is beneficial to an organic business and will enable a larger proportion of the crops grown to be marketed.

How intensive is the farming system and what changes need to be made in order to be organic? Mixed farms have traditionally been the easiest and most readily converted, with the livestock and grassland providing the fertility for the vegetables. More recently there have been more stockless systems converting, relying primarily on grass/clover for fertility. The more widespread availability of green-waste compost should aid the sustainability and uptake of these systems.

What are the landscape characteristics of the farm? The shape and size of fields and their distribution is an important consideration. A ring-fenced farm is easier to convert than a farm that is fragmented. This is due to the issue of boundaries and potential risk of spray-drift. Effective windbreaks are essential for preventing spray-drift; where they do not exist or are deemed to be ineffective, then a 10 m buffer zone must be operated. This can have a big impact on the usable area of a field if surrounded by conventional arable land.

What is the condition of the land? High populations of perennial weeds such as creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense), couch grass (Elytrigia repens) and docks (Rumex spp.) can pose considerable challenges for organic conversion. A clean start is preferable and it is, of course, possible to use conventional methods of weed control, prior to conversion. Fallowing techniques, as outlined in Chapter 7, can be effective, particularly in dry conditions, but reduce opportunities for fertility building or cropping. High pressure from annual weeds, particularly on black fen soils or resulting from previous cropping or set-aside can also be challenging.

Are the soils suitable for vegetable production? While clay soils can be very fertile they do need careful management in terms of appropriate timings of cultivations (when not too wet). They are also slow to warm up in the spring and, therefore, not ideal for early production. In contrast, sandy soils, though easily cultivated and quick to warm up, can be very hungry for nutrients and water. The soil type can be important for crop quality, in terms of skin finish for root crops, when trying to meet supermarket specifications. The physical condition of the soil is another factor, as very poorly structured or compacted soil will take longer to recover under organic management and the effects are more visible and less easily remedied. Intensive prior use of the land for vegetable production can be a drawback if a legacy of soil-borne diseases or pest infestations has been left. White rot (Sclerotium cepivorum) in onions and club root (Plasmodiophora brassicae) of brassicas can remain a problem in the soil for twenty years or more.

Is the farm infrastructure suitable for an organic enterprise? The farm infrastructure is also important. The availability of irrigation is crucial for establishment of vegetable crops in most areas of the country, especially on lighter land. A good selection of farm buildings is useful, for packing and storage of vegetables, and if conventional production is to be maintained there needs to be clearly defined areas for each. There may need to be areas for manure storage or handling. If livestock are to be added to the system, adequate housing and secure fencing will be required.

Advice

When pondering the decision as to whether a farm system is suitable for conversion it is vitally important to get advice (see alsoChapter 13). Whilst the details may vary from country to country, in the UK the first step is to contact the government-funded Organic Conversion Information Service (OCIS), which provides a telephone helpline service. Farmers and growers in any area of England can arrange for a free half-day visit and report by an adviser experienced in organic production and marketing. This can be followed by a full-day visit and expanded report by the advisor. The aim of the service is to provide impartial advice relevant to the business and the likely implications of converting to organic production. In England, the Organic Advisory Service (OAS), based at Elm Farm Research Centre (EFRC), provides this service, as does the Organic Centre Wales (OCW) in Wales. In Scotland and Northern Ireland the service is provided as a telephone helpline only (seeUseful Addresses).

Careful study of the organic standards is essential and some certifying bodies have electronic versions that can be downloaded from their websites. Alternatively a charge may be made for a hard copy, which is deductible if you register for conversion.

Planning for Conversion

Conversion can be as much about learning and a change in attitude (‘converting the space between the ears’) as about physical changes to the land and farming system. Detailed financial budgeting and technical planning are, however, required, as changes to husbandry techniques, investment in equipment and infrastructure may be needed.

Gathering Information

Research and information gathering are an important part of planning for the conversion process (see alsoChapter 13). Farmers in HDRA’s Conversion to Organic Field Vegetable Production project spent between 420–520 hours gathering information during the conversion period. Visits to established organic farms and attendance at organic seminars and workshops is vital, to gain understanding of working organic systems. The SA, EFRC, HDRA, OCW and others all run full programmes of farm walks and events. In addition to the free advice from OCIS (see above), it can pay to take further advice, which is available from a number of advisory organizations, including Abacus, ADAS and EFRC. Conversion plans, feasibility studies and telephone support can be arranged. With the necessity for rotation, and especially if local markets are going to be supplied, it is usual that new crops will be grown or enterprises will be established. This in itself will be a learning curve and training may be needed.

Conversion Plan

Application needs to be made to a certifying body in order to begin the certification process. Certifying bodies usually require a conversion plan to be supplied with the application and this should normally cover the period of one complete rotation. This must include programmes for soil management, rotations, plant nutrition and pest, disease and weed control. Where applicable, programmes for grazing, grassland management, feeding, animal welfare and health, and environmental conservation are also needed. The purpose is to demonstrate that the applicant has a full understanding of the organic standards and farming system.

It may be necessary to decide whether to put all or part of a farm into conversion. In the UK, organic and conventional land are allowed on the same farm, as long as the area converted can be regarded as a sustainable unit in its own right, is clearly defined, and there are no opportunities for fraudulent switching of conventional and organic produce. In contrast, in parts of Europe it is necessary to make a commitment to convert the whole farm. It may be simpler, for record-keeping purposes, to create a separate holding for the organic enterprise. It should be borne in mind that it is prohibited to grow the same variety of conventional and organic crops in parallel.

One common mistake has been to put the least productive part of a farm into conversion, perhaps because it is not performing well in conventional production. Organic production, not surprisingly, does best on land that is in good heart, is easily workable and has few problems with weeds or pests and diseases: it follows that converting an unsuitable area can create problems from the outset.

It is common for arable and larger intensive vegetable farms to have staged conversions, whereas mixed farms with livestock often convert the whole farm at once. This is because livestock can be converted simultaneously, whereby the livestock (breeding animals only), pasturage and any land used for animal feed are converted at the same time. If the conversion is to be phased in stages, then it has to be decided which field, or fields, need to be entered first. The date of attaining organic status has to be considered here, which will be twenty-four months from registration and the last use of any prohibited materials. If possible this should be in early spring or before, because a late start in the first organic year, for example in June, can put pressure on the farming system, as many crops will need to be planted at the same time and this can have knock-on effects, with peaks of weed pressure and demands on labour and machinery.

The Conversion Period

Conversion Strategies

During the conversion period the land has to be managed according to the organic standards and documentation and record keeping must reflect this. Different strategies can be adopted during this time, which will partly depend on the market for in-conversion produce and partly on the type of farming system that is being converted. After at least twelve months have elapsed from the start of conversion, crops harvested can be sold as ‘in-conversion’. However, there isn’t really a market for in-conversion vegetables as such, although direct marketing through farmers’ markets and box schemes, where the seller can communicate directly with the consumers, may be a better outlet. For mixed arable conversions there may be the option of growing in-conversion cereals, but the state of the market should be checked out first with Organic Grain Link or the Organic Arable Marketing Group.

Fertility Building

Once the plunge has been taken and the land has been registered with a certifying body it is important not just to sit back and wait for the two years to pass. The conversion period is a good opportunity to begin to build soil fertility and encourage the build-up of biological life in the soil, especially where the land has been under continuous arable cropping. Fertility-building crops should be considered as important crops in their own right and need to be nurtured in the same way as any other, needing good conditions for establishment, irrigation during dry weather and proper management. Although the use of cut and mulch grass/clovers or vetches is common (seeChapter 4) in organic systems, they can be a new technique for many arable farmers. Manures and composts can also help and new systems for dealing with them might need to be implemented. Regular mowing of grass leys will be needed, cutting when no higher than an average knee-height down to ankle length. The idea is to avoid too much bulky material being cut, which can form a thatch preventing re-growth of the ley. Mowing will select against weeds and prevent seeding of the grass, clover and weeds.

Farm Enterprises and Cropping

It is likely that changes will be required to the farming system, but the extent of those will depend on how specialist, intensive or mixed the conventional farming system is. Usually the system will become more diverse and complex and, typically, management time will increase.

For specialist vegetable farms converting to organic, the principal change to the farming system will be fertility management (see above). Fertility building will be needed and the growing of grass and clover or other legumes may well be unfamiliar to the conventional grower. If the farm has already been supplying local or direct markets, such as farmers’ markets or farm shops, then it will already be growing a variety of different crops and may need fewer changes. The more specialist the production, the more changes will be needed.

Large arable/vegetable farms had been slower to convert than other farm types until the boom of the organic market and the introduction of conversion grants in the late-nineties. A HDRA study has observed that conversion has been technically possible on this farm type, but generally has required large investments in machinery, especially for weed control to reduce hand labour. The market outlets are mostly to the packers and supermarkets and the scale of production means that risks are high. The same study showed that arable farms converting to include vegetables tended to grow fewer cereals, grow more fertility-building grass leys and grow more vegetables after conversion. These large-scale arable conversions used a staged conversion, typically over five or six years. Fewer break crops, such as sugar beet and oil-seed rape, were grown, as there is no organic market, at present, for some of these crops that are grown conventionally. A wider variety of vegetables are usually grown, some of which the farm may be unfamiliar with. Livestock often fit well into such an organic system, but the economics and current market situation should be examined closely if livestock are to be re-introduced, especially if skills and infrastructure are lacking on the farm.

The mixed-farming system with livestock, fodder and arable crops will generally involve less radical changes during conversion. The importance of clover in leys may need to be rediscovered but there is more likely to be an existing rotation. Manure-handling systems might have to be changed, but farmyard manure, together with grass/clover leys can provide the basis of fertility. Vegetables can rotate around the farm, with grassland and other crops, and a long rotation can minimize any problems from pests or diseases and weeds. Traditionally, many more farms of this type have converted to organic, particularly in the West of England and Wales. The soils of these farms may be heavier and less than ideal for vegetable production. Many traditional grassland farms have soils that are low in phosphorus and potassium but are able to support good crops. If the farms have not grown vegetables before, then investment in machinery, irrigation and packing facilities may be needed. Conversion of these farms tends to be shorter, as they often undertake the simultaneous conversion of livestock. This whole farm conversion can lead to a drop in income during the conversion period, though livestock will still be bringing in some income.

Chapter 3

Crops, Seed and Varieties

A wide range of vegetable crops can potentially be grown in organic vegetable-production systems. Within each crop type, a diverse and often bewildering array of varieties is usually available. Choice of which variety to use and the variety that will perform well in any given situation will depend on many factors. Some of these are under the control of the farmer or grower and others are not. Factors that can be controlled to some extent are those like planting time, soil condition or marketing outlets, whilst those that cannot include factors such as availability of organic seed, soil type, rainfall and market quality requirements.

Obviously, crop and variety choice will ultimately be a compromise between conflicting needs within the farm system and some of these trade-offs are briefly discussed in this chapter as an overview of the main vegetable crops and varieties – a more detailed discussion of the crop types is left to Chapter 12. Choice of cultivar can also be helped by variety-trialling information and this is also discussed. The use of organic seed and organic plant-raising media and techniques is a necessity for production under organic standards and the major issues are briefly touched upon.

VARIETY TRAITS FOR ORGANIC PRODUCTION

Organic farmers and growers largely depend on varieties supplied by conventional plant-breeders and the conventional (non-organic) seed industry. Whilst many of these varieties are excellent, it should be borne in mind that the majority have been bred to perform well in farming systems where artificial fertilizers and pesticides are routinely used. This is obviously not typical of organic farming systems and although varieties often perform well in both conventional and organic systems this is not always the case. In general, organic farmers should look for ‘resilient’ varieties that are able to provide a stable yield over a range of conditions. Growing varieties that yield well only under more exacting and protected conditions obviously implies a greater risk to yield and performance when conditions are adverse, such as under high disease pressure or low soil fertility. Although it is difficult to generalize across crop types, especially with crop types as diverse as vegetables, it is possible to sketch the general traits that can be desirable in organic vegetable varieties. Any specific traits of importance are mentioned in the discussion on specific crop types.