The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
The Expression of the Emotions in Man and AnimalsINTRODUCTION.CHAPTER I. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.CHAPTER II. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—continued.CHAPTER III. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—concluded.CHAPTER IV. — MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS.CHAPTER V. — SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.CHAPTER VI. — SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.CHAPTER VII. — LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.CHAPTER VIII. — JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.CHAPTER IX. — REFLECTION—MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER—SULKINESS—DETERMINATION.CHAPTER X. — HATRED AND ANGER.CHAPTER XI. — DISDAIN—CONTEMPT—DISGUST-GUILT—PRIDE, ETC.—HELPLESSNESS—PATIENCE—AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.CHAPTER XII. — SURPRISE—ASTONISHMENT—FEAR—HORROR.CHAPTER XIII. — SELF-ATTENTION—SHAME—SHYNESS—MODESTY: BLUSHING.CHAPTER XIV. — CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.FOOTNOTES:Copyright
The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
Charles Darwin
INTRODUCTION.
MANY works have been written on Expression, but a greater
number on Physiognomy,—that is, on the recognition of character
through the study of the permanent form of the features. With this
latter subject I am not here concerned. The older treatises,[1]which I
have consulted, have been of little or no service to me. The famous
'Conferences'[2]of the painter Le
Brun, published in 1667, is the best known ancient work, and
contains some good remarks. Another somewhat old essay, namely, the
'Discours,' delivered 1774-1782, by the well-known Dutch anatomist
Camper,[3]can hardly be considered as having made any marked advance in
the subject. The following works, on the contrary, deserve the
fullest consideration.Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in
physiology, published in 1806 the first edition, and in the third
edition of his 'Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression.'[4]He may with
justice be said, not only to have laid the foundations of the
subject as a branch of science, but to have built up a noble
structure. His work is in every way deeply interesting; it includes
graphic descriptions of the various emotions, and is admirably
illustrated. It is generally admitted that his service consists
chiefly in having shown the intimate relation which exists between
the movements of expression and those of respiration. One of the
most important points, small as it may at first appear, is that the
muscles round the eyes are involuntarily contracted during violent
expiratory efforts, in order to protect these delicate organs from
the pressure of the blood. This fact, which has been fully
investigated for me with the greatest kindness by Professors
Donders of Utrecht, throws, as we shall hereafter see, a flood of
light on several of the most important expressions of the human
countenance. The merits of Sir C. Bell's work have been undervalued
or quite ignored by several foreign writers, but have been fully
admitted by some, for instance by M. Lemoine,[5]who with great
justice says:—"Le livre de Ch. Bell devrait etre medite par
quiconque essaye de faire parler le visage de l'homme, par les
philosophes aussi bien que par les artistes, car, sous une
apparence plus legere et sous le pretexte de l'esthetique, c'est un
des plus beaux monuments de la science des rapports du physique et
du moral."From reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir C. Bell
did not attempt to follow out his views as far as they might have
been carried. He does not try to explain why different muscles are
brought into action under different emotions; why, for instance,
the inner ends of the eyebrows are raised, and the corners of the
mouth depressed, by a person suffering from grief or
anxiety.In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater on
Physiognomy,[6]in which he
incorporated several of his own essays, containing excellent
descriptions of the movements of the facial muscles, together with
many valuable remarks. He throws, however, very little light on the
philosophy of the subject. For instance, M. Moreau, in speaking of
the act of frowning, that is, of the contraction of the muscle
called by French writers thesoucilier(corrigator supercilii),
remarks with truth:—"Cette action des sourciliers est un des
symptomes les plus tranches de l'expression des affections penibles
ou concentrees." He then adds that these muscles, from their
attachment and position, are fitted "a resserrer, a concentrer les
principaux traits de laface,
comme il convient dans toutes ces passions vraiment oppressives ou
profondes, dans ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter
l'organisation a revenir sur elle-meme, a se contracter et as'amoindrir, comme pour offrir moins
de prise et de surface a des impressions redoutables ou
importunes." He who thinks that remarks of this kind throw any
light on the meaning or origin of the different expressions, takes
a very different view of the subject to what I do.The earliest edition of this work, referred to in the preface
to the edition of 1820 in ten volumes, as containing the
observations of M. Moreau, is said to have been published in 1807;
and I have no doubt that this is correct, because the 'Notice sur
Lavater' at the commencement of volume i. is dated April 13, 1806.
In some bibliographical works, however, the date of 1805—1809 is
given, but it seems impossible that 1805 can be correct. Dr.
Duchenne remarks ('Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,'-8vo edit.
1862, p. 5, and 'Archives Generales de Medecine,' Jan. et Fev.
1862) that M. Moreau "a compose pour son ouvrage
un article important," &c., in the year
1805; and I find in volume i. of the edition of 1820 passages
bearing the dates of December 12, 1805, and another January 5,
1806, besides that of April 13, 1806, above referred to. In
consequence of some of these passages having thus been COMPOSED in
1805, Dr. Duchenne assigns to M. Moreau the priority over Sir C.
Bell, whose work, as we have seen, was published in 1806. This is a
very unusual manner of determining the priority of scientific
works; but such questions are of extremely little importance in
comparison with their relative merits. The passages above quoted
from M. Moreau and from Le Brun are taken in this and all other
cases from the edition of 1820 of Lavater, tom. iv. p. 228, and
tom. ix. p. 279. In the above passage there is but a slight, if
any, advance in the philosophy of the subject, beyond that reached
by the painter Le Brun, who, in 1667, in describing the expression
of fright, says:—"Le sourcil qui est abaisse d'un cote et eleve de
l'autre, fait voir que la partie elevee semble le vouloir joindre
au cerveau pour le garantir du mal que l'ame apercoit, et le cote
qui est abaisse et qui parait enfle,—nous fait trouver dans cet
etat par les esprits qui viennent du cerveau en abondance, comme
polir couvrir l'aine et la defendre du mal qu'elle craint; la
bouche fort ouverte fait voir le saisissement du coeur, par le sang
qui se retire vers lui, ce qui l'oblige, voulant respirer, a faire
un effort qui est cause que la bouche s'ouvre extremement, et qui,
lorsqu'il passe par les organes de la voix, forme un son qui n'est
point articule; que si les muscles et les veines paraissent enfles,
ce n'est que par les esprits que le cerveau envoie en ces
parties-la." I have thought the foregoing sentences worth quoting,
as specimens of the surprising nonsense which has been written on
the subject.'The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,' by Dr. Burgess,
appeared in 1839, and to this work I shall frequently refer in my
thirteenth Chapter.In 1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in folio and
octavo, of his 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' in which he
analyses by means of electricity, and illustrates by magnificent
photographs, the movements of the facial muscles. He has generously
permitted me to copy as many of his photographs as I desired. His
works have been spoken lightly of, or quite passed over, by some of
his countrymen. It is possible that Dr. Duchenne may have
exaggerated the importance of the contraction of single muscles in
giving expression; for, owing to the intimate manner in which the
muscles are connected, as may be seen in Henle's anatomical
drawings[7]—the best I believe ever published it is difficult to believe
in their separate action. Nevertheless, it is manifest that Dr.
Duchenne clearly apprehended this and other sources of error, and
as it is known that he was eminently successful in elucidating the
physiology of the muscles of the hand by the aid of electricity, it
is probable that he is generally in the right about the muscles of
the face. In my opinion, Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced the
subject by his treatment of it. No one has more carefully studied
the contraction of each separate muscle, and the consequent furrows
produced on the skin. He has also, and this is a very important
service, shown which muscles are least under the separate control
of the will. He enters very little into theoretical considerations,
and seldom attempts to explain why certain muscles and not others
contract under the influence of certain emotions. A distinguished
French anatomist, Pierre Gratiolet, gave a course of lectures on
Expression at the Sorbonne, and his notes were published (1865)
after his death, under the title of 'De la Physionomie et des
Mouvements d'Expression.' This is a very interesting work, full of
valuable observations. His theory is rather complex, and, as far as
it can be given in a single sentence (p. 65), is as follows:—"Il
resulte, de tous les faits que j'ai rappeles, que les sens,
l'imagination et la pensee ellememe, si elevee, si abstraite qu'on
la suppose, ne peuvent s'exercer sans eveiller un sentiment
correlatif, et que ce sentiment se traduit directement,
sympathiquement, symboliquement ou metaphoriquement, dans toutes
les spheres des organs exterieurs, qui la racontent tous, suivant
leur mode d'action propre, comme si chacun d'eux avait ete
directement affecte."Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and even to
some extent habit in the individual; and therefore he fails, as it
seems to me, to give the right explanation, or any explanation at
all, of many gestures and expressions. As an illustration of what
he calls symbolic movements, I will quote his remarks (p. 37),
taken from M. Chevreul, on a man playing at billiards. "Si une
bille devie legerement de la direction que le joueur pretend zlui
imprimer, ne l'avez-vous pas vu cent fois la pousser du regard, de
la tete et meme des epaules, comme si ces mouvements, purement
symboliques, pouvaient rectifier son trajet? Des mouvements non
moins significatifs se produisent quand la bille manque d'une
impulsion suffisante. Et cliez les joueurs novices, ils sont
quelquefois accuses au point d'eveiller le sourire sur les levres
des spectateurs." Such movements, as it appeirs to me, may be
attributed simply to habit. As often as a man has wished to move an
object to one side, he has always pushed it to that side when
forwards, he has pushed it forwards; and if he has wished to arrest
it, he has pulled backwards. Therefore, when a man sees his ball
travelling in a wrong direction, and he intensely wishes it to go
in another direction, he cannot avoid, from long habit,
unconsciously performing movements which in other cases he has
found effectual.As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives (p.
212) the following case:—"un jeune chien A oreilles droites, auquel
son maitre presente de loin quelque viande appetissante, fixe avec
ardeur ses yeux sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements, et
pendant que les yeux regardent, les deux oreilles se portent en
avant comme si cet objet pouvait etre entendu." Here, instead of
speaking of sympathy between the ears and eyes, it appears to me
more simple to believe, that as dogs during many generations have,
whilst intently looking at any object, pricked their ears in order
to perceive any sound; and conversely have looked intently in the
direction of a sound to which they may have listened, the movements
of these organs have become firmly associated together through
long-continued habit.Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, which I
have not seen, but in which, as he states, he forestalled Gratiolet
in many of his views. In 1867 he published his 'Wissenschaftliches
System der Mimik und Physiognomik.' It is hardly possible to give
in a few sentences a fair notion of his views; perhaps the two
following sentences will tell as much as can be briefly told: "the
muscular movements of expression are in part related to imaginary
objects, and in part to imaginary sensorial impressions. In this
proposition lies the key to the comprehension of all expressive
muscular movements." (s. 25) Again, "Expressive movements manifest
themselves chiefly in the numerous and mobile muscles of the face,
partly because the nerves by which they are set into motion
originate in the most immediate vicinity of the mind-organ, but
partly also because these muscles serve to support the organs of
sense." (s. 26.) If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir C. Bell's work, he
would probably not have said (s. 101) that violent laughter causes
a frown from partaking of the nature of pain; or that with infants
(s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes, and thus excite the
contraction of the surrounding in muscles. Many good remarks are
scattered throughout this volume, to which I shall hereafter
refer.Short discussions on Expression may be found in various
works, which need not here be particularised. Mr. Bain, however, in
two of his works has treated the subject at some length. He
says,[8]"I look upon the expression so-called as part and parcel of
the feeling. I believe it to be a general law of the mind that
along with the fact of inward feeling or consciousness, there is a
diffusive action or excitement over the bodily members." In another
place he adds, "A very considerable number of the facts may be
brought under the following principle: namely, that states of
pleasure are connected with an increase, and states of pain with an
abatement, of some, or all, of the vital functions." But the above
law of the diffusive action of feelings seems too general to throw
much light on special expressions.Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in his
'Principles of Psychology' (1855), makes the following
remarks:—"Fear, when strong, expresses itself in cries, in efforts
to hide or escape, in palpitations and tremblings; and these are
just the manifestations that would accompany an actual experience
of the evil feared. The destructive passions are shown in a general
tension of the muscular system, in gnashing of the teeth and
protrusion of the claws, in dilated eyes and nostrils in growls;
and these are weaker forms of the actions that accompany the
killing of prey." Here we have, as I believe, the true theory of a
large number of expressions; but the chief interest and difficulty
of the subject lies in following out the wonderfully complex
results. I infer that some one (but who he is I have not been able
to ascertain) formerly advanced a nearly similar view, for Sir C.
Bell says,[9]"It has been maintained that what are called the external
signs of passion, are only the concomitants of those voluntary
movements which the structure renders necessary." Mr. Spencer has
also published[10]a valuable essay
on the physiology of Laughter, in which he insists on "the general
law that feeling passing a certain pitch, habitually vents itself
in bodily action," and that "an overflow of nerve-force undirected
by any motive, will manifestly take first the most habitual routes;
and if these do not suffice, will next overflow into the less
habitual ones." This law I believe to be of the highest importance
in throwing light on our subject.'[11]All the authors who have written on Expression, with the
exception of Mr. Spencer—the great expounder of the principle of
Evolution—appear to have been firmly convinced that species, man of
course included, came into existence in their present condition.
Sir C. Bell, being thus convinced, maintains that many of our
facial muscles are "purely instrumental in expression;" or are "a
special provision" for this sole object.[12]But the simple
fact that the anthropoid apes possess the same facial muscles as we
do,[13]renders it very improbable that these muscles in our case
serve exclusively for expression; for no one, I presume, would be
inclined to admit that monkeys have been endowed with special
muscles solely for exhibiting their hideous grimaces. Distinct
uses, independently of expression, can indeed be assigned with much
probability for almost all the facial muscles.Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction
as possible between man and the lower animals; and he consequently
asserts that with "the lower creatures there is no expression but
what may be referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of
volition or necessary instincts." He further maintains that their
faces "seem chiefly capable of expressing rage and fear."[14]But man
himself cannot express love and humility by external signs, so
plainly as does a dog, when with drooping ears, hanging lips,
flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets his beloved master. Nor
can these movements in the dog be explained by acts of volition or
necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes and smiling
cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell had
been questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he
would no doubt have answered that this animal had been created with
special instincts, adapting him for association with man, and that
all further enquiry on the subject was superfluous.Although Gratiolet emphatically denies[15]that any muscle
has been developed solely for the sake of expression, he seems
never to have reflected on the principle of evolution. He
apparently looks at each species as a separate creation. So it is
with the other writers on Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne,
after speaking of the movements of the limbs, refers to those which
give expression to the face, and remarks:[16]"Le createur n'a
donc pas eu a se preoccuper ici des besoins de la mecanique; il a
pu, selon sa sagesse, ou—que l'on me pardonne cette maniere de
parler—par une divine fantaisie, mettre en action tel ou tel
muscle, un seul ou plusieurs muscles a la fois, lorsqu'il a voulu
que les signes caracteristiques des passions, meme les plus
fugaces, lussent ecrits passagerement sur la face de l'homme. Ce
langage de la physionomie une fois cree, il lui a suffi, pour le
rendre universel et immuable, de donner a tout etre humain la
faculte instinctive d'exprimer toujours ses sendments par la
contraction des memes muscles."Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression as
inexplicable. Thus the illustrious physiologist Muller,
says,[17]"The completely different expression of the features in
different passions shows that, according to the kind of feeling
excited, entirely different groups of the fibres of the facial
nerve are acted on. Of the cause of this we are quite
ignorant."No doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed as
independent creations, an effectual stop is put to our natural
desire to investigate as far as possible the causes of Expression.
By this doctrine, anything and everything can be equally well
explained; and it has proved as pernicious with respect to
Expression as to every other branch of natural history. With
mankind some expressions, such as the bristling of the hair under
the influence of extreme terror, or the uncovering of the teeth
under that of furious rage, can hardly be understood, except on the
belief that man once existed in a much lower and animal-like
condition. The community of certain expressions in distinct though
allied species, as in the movements of the same facial muscles
during laughter by man and by various monkeys, is rendered somewhat
more intelligible, if we believe in their descent from a common
progenitor. He who admits on general grounds that the structure and
habits of all animals have been gradually evolved, will look at the
whole subject of Expression in a new and interesting
light.The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements
being often extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature. A
difference may be clearly perceived, and yet it may be impossible,
at least I have found it so, to state in what the difference
consists. When we witness any deep emotion, our sympathy is so
strongly excited, that close observation is forgotten or rendered
almost impossible; of which fact I have had many curious proofs.
Our imagination is another and still more serious source of error;
for if from the nature of the circumstances we expect to see any
expression, we readily imagine its presence. Notwithstanding Dr.
Duchenne's great experience, he for a long time fancied, as he
states, that several muscles contracted under certain emotions,
whereas he ultimately convinced himself that the movement was
confined to a single muscle.In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to
ascertain, independently of common opinion, how far particular
movements of the features and gestures are really expressive of
certain states of the mind, I have found the following means the
most serviceable. In the first place, to observe infants; for they
exhibit many emotions, as Sir C. Bell remarks, "with extraordinary
force;" whereas, in after life, some of our expressions "cease to
have the pure and simple source from which they spring in
infancy."[18]In the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought
to be studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and
give uncontrolled vent to them. I had, myself, no opportunity of
doing this, so I applied to Dr. Maudsley and received from him an
introduction to Dr. J. Crichton Browne, who has charge of an
immense asylum near Wakefield, and who, as I found, had already
attended to the subject. This excellent observer has with unwearied
kindness sent me copious notes and descriptions, with valuable
suggestions on many points; and I can hardly over-estimate the
value of his assistance. I owe also, to the kindness of Mr. Patrick
Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, interesting statements on two
or three points.Thirdly Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen,
certain muscles in the face of an old man, whose skin was little
sensitive, and thus produced various expressions which were
photographed on a large scale. It fortunately occurred to me to
show several of the best plates, without a word of explanation, to
above twenty educated persons of various ages and both sexes,
asking them, in each case, by what emotion or feeling the old man
was supposed to be agitated; and I recorded their answers in the
words which they used. Several of the expressions were instantly
recognised by almost everyone, though described in not exactly the
same terms; and these may, I think, be relied on as truthful, and
will hereafter be specified. On the other hand, the most widely
different judgments were pronounced in regard to some of them. This
exhibition was of use in another way, by convincing me how easily
we may be misguided by our imagination; for when I first looked
through Dr. Duchenne's photographs, reading at the same time the
text, and thus learning what was intended, I was struck with
admiration at the truthfulness of all, with only a few exceptions.
Nevertheless, if I had examined them without any explanation, no
doubt I should have been as much perplexed, in some cases, as other
persons have been.Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great
masters in painting and sculpture, who are such close observers.
Accordingly, I have looked at photographs and engravings of many
well-known works; but, with a few exceptions, have not thus
profited. The reason no doubt is, that in works of art, beauty is
the chief object; and strongly contracted facial muscles destroy
beauty.[19]The story of the composition is generally told with wonderful
force and truth by skilfully given accessories.Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascertain
whether the same expressions and gestures prevail, as has often
been asserted without much evidence, with all the races of mankind,
especially with those who have associated but little with
Europeans. Whenever the same movements of the features or body
express the same emotions in several distinct races of man, we may
infer with much probability, that such expressions are true
ones,—that is, are innate or instinctive. Conventional expressions
or gestures, acquired by the individual during early life, would
probably have differed in the different races, in the same manner
as do their languages. Accordingly I circulated, early in the year
1867, the following printed queries with a request, which has been
fully responded to, that actual observations, and not memory, might
be trusted. These queries were written after a considerable
interval of time, during which my attention had been otherwise
directed, and I can now see that they might have been greatly
improved. To some of the later copies, I appended, in manuscript, a
few additional remarks:—(1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being
opened wide, and by the eyebrows being raised?(2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin
allows it to be visible? and especially how low down the body does
the blush extend?(3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold
his body and head erect, square his shoulders and clench his
fists?(4) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to
understand any puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath
the lower eyelids?(5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth
depressed, and the inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that
muscle which the French call the "Grief muscle"? The eyebrow in
this state becomes slightly oblique, with a little swelling at the
Inner end; and the forehead is transversely wrinkled in the middle
part, but not across the whole breadth, as when the eyebrows are
raised in surprise. (6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle,
with the skin a little wrinkled round and under them, and with the
mouth a little drawn back at the corners?(7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of
the upper lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side
facing the man whom he addresses?(8) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which
is chiefly shown by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering brow
and a slight frown?(9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips
and by turning up the nose, and with a slight
expiration?(10) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the
upper lip slightly raised, with a sudden expiration, something like
incipient vomiting, or like something spit out of the
mouth?(11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as
with Europeans?(12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring
tears into the eyes?(13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent
something being done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug
his shoulders, turn inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands
and open the palms; with the eyebrows raised?(14) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the
lips?(15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be
recognized? though I know not how these can be
defined.(16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and
shaken laterally in negation?Observations on natives who have had little communication
with Europeans would be of course the most valuable, though those
made on any natives would be of much interest to me. General
remarks on expression are of comparatively little value; and memory
is so deceptive that I earnestly beg it may not be trusted. A
definite description of the countenance under any emotion or frame
of mind, with a statement of the circumstances under which it
occurred, would possess much value.To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from
different observers, several of them missionaries or protectors of
the aborigines, to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great
trouble which they have taken, and for the valuable aid thus
received. I will specify their names, &c., towards the close of
this chapter, so as not to interrupt my present remarks. The
answers relate to several of the most distinct and savage races of
man. In many instances, the circumstances have been recorded under
which each expression was observed, and the expression itself
described. In such cases, much confidence may be placed in the
answers. When the answers have been simply yes or no, I have always
received them with caution. It follows, from the information thus
acquired, that the same state of mind is expressed throughout the
world with remarkable uniformity; and this fact is in itself
interesting as evidence of the close similarity in bodily structure
and mental disposition of all the races, of mankind.Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended as closely as I could,
to the expression of the several passions in some of the commoner
animals; and this I believe to be of paramount importance, not of
course for deciding how far in man certain expressions are
characteristic of certain states of mind, but as affording the
safest basis for generalisation on the causes, or origin, of the
various movements of Expression. In observing animals, we are not
so likely to be biassed by our imagination; and we may feel safe
that their expressions are not conventional.From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature
of some expressions (the changes in the features being often
extremely slight); our sympathy being easily aroused when we behold
any strong emotion, and our attention thus distracted; our
imagination deceiving us, from knowing in a vague manner what to
expect, though certainly few of us know what the exact changes in
the countenance are; and lastly, even our long familiarity with the
subject,—from all these causes combined, the observation of
Expression is by no means easy, as many persons, whom I have asked
to observe certain points, have soon discovered. Hence it is
difficult to determine, with certainty, what are the movements of
the features and of the body, which commonly characterize certain
states of the mind. Nevertheless, some of the doubts and
difficulties have, as I hope, been cleared away by the observation
of infants,—of the insane,—of the different races of man,—of works
of art,—and lastly, of the facial muscles under the action of
galvanism, as effected by Dr. Duchenne.But there remains the much greater difficulty of
understanding the cause or origin of the several expressions, and
of judging whether any theoretical explanation is trustworthy.
Besides, judging as well as we can by our reason, without the aid
of any rules, which of two or more explanations is the most
satisfactory, or are quite unsatisfactory, I see only one way of
testing our conclusions. This is to observe whether the same
principle by which one expression can, as it appears, be explained,
is applicable in other allied cases; and especially, whether the
same general principles can be applied with satisfactory results,
both to man and the lower animals. This latter method, I am
inclined to think, is the most serviceable of all. The difficulty
of judging of the truth of any theoretical explanation, and of
testing it by some distinct line of investigation, is the great
drawback to that interest which the study seems well fitted to
excite.Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may state
that they were commenced in the year 1838; and from that time to
the present day, I have occasionally attended to the subject. At
the above date, I was already inclined to believe in the principle
of evolution, or of the derivation of species from other and lower
forms. Consequently, when I read Sir C. Bell's great work, his
view, that man had been created with certain muscles specially
adapted for the expression of his feelings, struck me as
unsatisfactory. It seemed probable that the habit of expressing our
feelings by certain movements, though now rendered innate, had been
in some manner gradually acquired. But to discover how such habits
had been acquired was perplexing in no small degree. The whole
subject had to be viewed under a new aspect, and each expression
demanded a rational explanation. This belief led me to attempt the
present work, however imperfectly it may have been
executed.————I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have
said, I am deeply indebted for information in regard to the
expressions exhibited by various races of man, and I will specify
some of the circumstances under which the observations were in each
case made. Owing to the great kindness and powerful influence of
Mr. Wilson, of Hayes Place, Kent, I have received from Australia no
less than thirteen sets of answers to my queries. This has been
particularly fortunate, as the Australian aborigines rank amongst
the most distinct of all the races of man. It will be seen that the
observations have been chiefly made in the south, in the outlying
parts of the colony of Victoria; but some excellent answers have
been received from the north.Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valuable
observations, made several hundred miles in the interior of
Queensland. To Mr. R. Brough Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much
indebted for observations made by himself, and for sending me
several of the following letters, namely:—From the Rev. Mr.
Hagenauer, of Lake Wellington, a missionary in Gippsland, Victoria,
who has had much experience with the natives. From Mr. Samuel
Wilson, a landowner, residing at Langerenong, Wimmera, Victoria.
From the Rev. George Taplin, superintendent of the native
Industrial Settlement at Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang,
of Coranderik, Victoria, a teacher at a school where aborigines,
old and young, are collected from all parts of the colony. From Mr.
H. B. Lane, of Belfast, Victoria, a police magistrate and warden,
whose observations, as I am assured, are highly trustworthy. From
Mr. Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station is on the borders
of the colony of Victoria, and who has thus been able to observe
many aborigines who have had little intercourse with white men. He
compared his observations with those made by two other gentlemen
long resident in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. Bulmer, a
missionary in a remote part of Gippsland, Victoria.I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr.
Ferdinand Muller, of Victoria, for some observations made by
himself, and for sending me others made by Mrs. Green, as well as
for some of the foregoing letters.In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. J. W. Stack
has answered only a few of my queries; but the answers have been
remarkably full, clear, and distinct, with the circumstances
recorded under which the observations were made.The Rajah Brooke has given me some information with respect
to the Dyaks of Borneo.Respecting the Malays, I have been highly successful; for Mr.
F. Geach (to whom I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his
residence as a mining engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed
many natives, who had never before associated with white men. He
wrote me two long letters with admirable and detailed observations
on their expression. He likewise observed the Chinese immigrants in
the Malay archipelago.The well-known naturalist, H. M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, also
observed for me the Chinese in their native country; and he made
inquiries from others whom he could trust.In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official
capacity in the Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency,
attended to the expression of the inhabitants, but found much
difficulty in arriving at any safe conclusions, owing to their
habitual concealment of all emotions in the presence of Europeans.
He also obtained information for me from Mr. West, the Judge in
Canara, and he consulted some intelligent native gentlemen on
certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J. Scott, curator of the Botanic
Gardens, carefully observed the various tribes of men therein
employed during a considerable period, and no one has sent me such
full and valuable details. The habit of accurate observation,
gained by his botanical studies, has been brought to bear on our
present subject. For Ceylon I am much indebted to the Rev. S. O.
Glenie for answers to some of my queries.Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to
the negroes, though Mr. Winwood Reade aided me as far as lay in his
power. It would have been comparatively easy to have obtained
information in regard to the negro slaves in America; but as they
have long associated with white men, such observations would have
possessed little value. In the southern parts of the continent Mrs.
Barber observed the Kafirs and Fingoes, and sent me many distinct
answers. Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also made some observations on the
natives, and procured for me a curious document, namely, the
opinion, written in English, of Christian Gaika, brother of the
Chief Sandilli, on the expressions of his fellow-countrymen. In the
northern regions of Africa Captain Speedy, who long resided with
the Abyssinians, answered my queries partly from memory and partly
from observations made on the son of King Theodore, who was then
under his charge. Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray attended to some
points in the expressions of the natives, as observed by them
whilst ascending the Nile.On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist
residing with the Fuegians, answered some few questions about their
expression, addressed to him many years ago. In the northern half
of the continent Dr. Rothrock attended to the expressions of the
wild Atnah and Espyox tribes on the Nasse River, in North-Western
America. Mr. Washington Matthews Assistant-Surgeon in the United
States Army, also observed with special care (after having seen my
queries, as printed in the 'Smithsonian Report') some of the
wildest tribes in the Western parts of the United States, namely,
the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and Assinaboines; and his answers
have proved of the highest value.Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I have
collected some few facts incidentally given in books of
travels.——As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter
part of this volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a
diagram (fig. 1) copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell's work, and
two others, with more accurate details (figs. 2 and 3), from
Herde's well-known 'Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des
Menschen.' The same letters refer to the same muscles in all three
figures, but the names are given of only the more important ones to
which I shall have to allude. The facial muscles blend much
together, and, as I am informed, hardly appear on a dissected face
so distinct as they are here represented. Some writers consider
that these muscles consist of nineteen pairs, with one
unpaired;[20]but others make the number much larger, amounting even to
fifty-five, according to Moreau. They are, as is admitted by
everyone who has written on the subject, very variable in
structure; and Moreau remarks that they are hardly alike in
half-a-dozen subjects.[21]They are also
variable in function. Thus the power of uncovering the canine tooth
on one side differs much in different persons. The power of raising
the wings of the nostrils is also, according to Dr. Piderit,[22]variable
in a remarkable degree; and other such cases could be
given.Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my
obligations to Mr. Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in
photographing for me various expressions and gestures. I am also
indebted to Herr Kindermann, of Hamburg, for the loan of some
excellent negatives of crying infants; and to Dr. Wallich for a
charming one of a smiling girl. I have already expressed my
obligations to Dr. Duchenne for generously permitting me to have
some of his large photographs copied and reduced. All these
photographs have been printed by the Heliotype process, and the
accuracy of the copy is thus guaranteed. These plates are referred
to by Roman numerals.I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme
pains which he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of
various animals. A distinguished artist, Mr. Riviere, has had the
kindness to give me two drawings of dogs—one in a hostile and the
other in a humble and caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has also
given me two similar sketches of dogs. Mr. Cooper has taken much
care in cutting the blocks. Some of the photographs and drawings,
namely, those by Mr. May, and those by Mr. Wolf of the
Cynopithecus, were first reproduced by Mr. Cooper on wood by means
of photography, and then engraved: by this means almost complete
fidelity is ensured.
CHAPTER I. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
The three chief principles stated—The first
principle—Serviceable actions become habitual in association with
certain states of the mind, and are performed whether or not of
service in each particular case—The force of
habit—Inheritance—Associated habitual movements in man—Reflex
actions—Passage of habits into reflex actions—Associated habitual
movements in the lower animals—Concluding
remarks.I WILL begin by giving the three Principles, which appear to
me to account for most of the expressions and gestures
involuntarily used by man and the lower animals, under the
influence of various emotions and sensations.[101]I arrived, however, at these three Principles only at the
close of my observations. They will be discussed in the present and
two following chapters in a general manner. Facts observed both
with man and the lower animals will here be made use of; but the
latter facts are preferable, as less likely to deceive us. In the
fourth and fifth chapters, I will describe the special expressions
of some of the lower animals; and in the succeeding chapters those
of man. Everyone will thus be able to judge for himself, how far my
three principles throw light on the theory of the subject. It
appears to me that so many expressions are thus explained in a
fairly satisfactory manner, that probably all will hereafter be
found to come under the same or closely analogous heads. I need
hardly premise that movements or changes in any part of the
body,—as the wagging of a dog's tail, the drawing back of a horse's
ears, the shrugging of a man's shoulders, or the dilatation of the
capillary vessels of the skin,—may all equally well serve for
expression. The three Principles are as follows.I.The principle of serviceable associated
Habits.—Certain complex actions are of direct or
indirect service under certain states of the mind, in order to
relieve or gratify certain sensations, desires, &c.; and
whenever the same state of mind is induced, however feebly, there
is a tendency through the force of habit and association for the
same movements to be performed, though they may not then be of the
least use. Some actions ordinarily associated through habit with
certain states of the mind may be partially repressed through the
will, and in such cases the muscles which are least under the
separate control of the will are the most liable still to act,
causing movements which we recognize as expressive. In certain
other cases the checking of one habitual movement requires other
slight movements; and these are likewise expressive.II.The principle of Antithesis.—Certain states of the mind lead to certain habitual
actions, which are of service, as under our first principle. Now
when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, there is a
strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements of
a directly opposite nature, though these are of no use; and such
movements are in some cases highly expressive.III.The principle of actions due to the
constitution of the Nervous System, independently from the first of
the Will, and independently to a certain extent of
Habit.—When the sensorium is strongly excited,
nerve-force is generated in excess, and is transmitted in certain
definite directions, depending on the connection of the
nerve-cells, and partly on habit: or the supply of nerve-force may,
as it appears, be interrupted. Effects are thus produced which we
recognize as expressive. This third principle may, for the sake of
brevity, be called that of the direct action of the nervous
system.With respect to ourfirst
Principle, it is notorious how powerful is the
force of habit. The most complex and difficult movements can in
time be performed without the least effort or consciousness. It is
not positively known how it comes that habit is so efficient in
facilitating complex movements; but physiologists admit[102]"that the conducting power of the nervous fibres increases
with the frequency of their excitement." This applies to the nerves
of motion and sensation, as well as to those connected with the act
of thinking. That some physical change is produced in the
nerve-cells or nerves which are habitually used can hardly be
doubted, for otherwise it is impossible to understand how the
tendency to certain acquired movements is inherited. That they are
inherited we see with horses in certain transmitted paces, such as
cantering and ambling, which are not natural to them,—in the
pointing of young pointers and the setting of young setters—in the
peculiar manner of flight of certain breeds of the pigeon, &c.
We have analogous cases with mankind in the inheritance of tricks
or unusual gestures, to which we shall presently recur. To those
who admit the gradual evolution of species, a most striking
instance of the perfection with which the most difficult consensual
movements can be transmitted, is afforded by the humming-bird
Sphinx-moth (Macroglossa); for
this moth, shortly after its emergence from the cocoon, as shown by
the bloom on its unruffled scales, may be seen poised stationary in
the air, with its long hair-like proboscis uncurled and inserted
into the minute orifices of flowers; and no one, I believe, has
ever seen this moth learning to perform its difficult task, which
requires such unerring aim.When there exists an inherited or instinctive tendency to the
performance of an action, or an inherited taste for certain kinds
of food, some degree of habit in the individual is often or
generally requisite. We find this in the paces of the horse, and to
a certain extent in the pointing of dogs; although some young dogs
point excellently the first time they are taken out, yet they often
associate the proper inherited attitude with a wrong odour, and
even with eyesight. I have heard it asserted that if a calf be
allowed to suck its mother only once, it is much more difficult
afterwards to rear it by hand.[103]Caterpillars which have been fed on the leaves of one kind of
tree, have been known to perish from hunger rather than to eat the
leaves of another tree, although this afforded them their proper
food, under a state of nature;[104]and so it is in many other cases.The power of Association is admitted by everyone. Mr. Bain
remarks, that "actions, sensations and states of feeling, occurring
together or in close succession, tend to grow together, or cohere,
in such a way that when any one of them is afterwards presented to
the mind, the others are apt to be brought up in idea."[105]It is so important for our purpose fully to recognize that
actions readily become associated with other actions and with
various states of the mind, that I will give a good many instances,
in the first place relating to man, and afterwards to the lower
animals. Some of the instances are of a very trifling nature, but
they are as good for our purpose as more important habits. It is
known to everyone how difficult, or even impossible it is, without
repeated trials, to move the limbs in certain opposed directions
which have never been practised. Analogous cases occur with
sensations, as in the common experiment of rolling a marble beneath
the tips of two crossed fingers, when it feels exactly like two
marbles. Everyone protects himself when falling to the ground by
extending his arms, and as Professor Alison has remarked, few can
resist acting thus, when voluntarily falling on a soft bed. A man
when going out of doors puts on his gloves quite unconsciously; and
this may seem an extremely simple operation, but he who has taught
a child to put on gloves, knows that this is by no means the
case.When our minds are much affected, so are the movements of our
bodies; but here another principle besides habit, namely the
undirected overflow of nerve-force, partially comes into play.
Norfolk, in speaking of Cardinal Wolsey, says—"Some strange commotionIs in his brain; he bites his lip and starts;Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground,Then, lays his finger on his temple: straight,Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again,Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he castsHis eye against the moon: in most strange
posturesWe have seen him set himself."—Hen.
VIII., act 3, sc. 2.A vulgar man often scratches his head when perplexed in mind;
and I believe that he acts thus from habit, as if he experienced a
slightly uncomfortable bodily sensation, namely, the itching of his
head, to which he is particularly liable, and which he thus
relieves. Another man rubs his eyes when perplexed, or gives a
little cough when embarrassed, acting in either case as if he felt
a slightly uncomfortable sensation in his eyes or windpipe.[106]From the continued use of the eyes, these organs are
especially liable to be acted on through association under various
states of the mind, although there is manifestly nothing to be
seen. A man, as Gratiolet remarks, who vehemently rejects a
proposition, will almost certainly shut his eyes or turn away his
face; but if he accepts the proposition, he will nod his head in
affirmation and open his eyes widely. The man acts in this latter
case as if he clearly saw the thing, and in the former case as if
he did not or would not see it. I have noticed that persons in
describing a horrid sight often shut their eyes momentarily and
firmly, or shake their heads, as if not to see or to drive away
something disagreeable; and I have caught myself, when thinking in
the dark of a horrid spectacle, closing my eyes firmly. In looking
suddenly at any object, or in looking all around, everyone raises
his eyebrows, so that the eyes may be quickly and widely opened;
and Duchenne remarks that[107]a person in trying to remember something often raises his
eyebrows, as if to see it. A Hindoo gentleman made exactly the same
remark to Mr. Erskine in regard to his countrymen. I noticed a
young lady earnestly trying to recollect a painter's name, and she
first looked to one corner of the ceiling and then to the opposite
corner, arching the one eyebrow on that side; although, of course,
there was nothing to be seen there.In most of the foregoing cases, we can understand how the
associated movements were acquired through habit; but with some
individuals, certain strange gestures or tricks have arisen in
association with certain states of the mind, owing to wholly
inexplicable causes, and are undoubtedly inherited. I have
elsewhere given one instance from my own observation of an
extraordinary and complex gesture, associated with pleasurable
feelings, which was transmitted from a father to his daughter, as
well as some other analogous facts.[108]Another curious instance of an odd inherited movement,
associated with the wish to obtain an object, will be given in the
course of this volume.There are other actions which are commonly performed under
certain circumstances, independently of habit, and which seem to be
due to imitation or some sort of sympathy. Thus persons cutting
anything with a pair of scissors may be seen to move their jaws
simultaneously with the blades of the scissors. Children learning
to write often twist about their tongues as their fingers move, in
a ridiculous fashion. When a public singer suddenly becomes a
little hoarse, many of those present may be heard, as I have been
assured by a gentleman on whom I can rely, to clear their throats;
but here habit probably comes into play, as we clear our own
throats under similar circumstances. I have also been told that at
leaping matches, as the performer makes his spring, many of the
spectators, generally men and boys, move their feet; but here again
habit probably comes into play, for it is very doubtful whether
women would thus act.[109]Reflex actions—Reflex actions, in the
strict sense of the term, are due to the excitement of a peripheral
nerve, which transmits its influence to certain nerve-cells, and
these in their turn excite certain muscles or glands into action;
and all this may take place without any sensation or consciousness
on our part, though often thus accompanied. As many reflex actions
are highly expressive, the subject must here be noticed at some
little length. We shall also see that some of them graduate into,
and can hardly be distinguished from actions which have arisen
through habit? Coughing and sneezing are familiar instances of
reflex actions. With infants the first act of respiration is often
a sneeze, although this requires the co-ordinated movement of
numerous muscles. Respiration is partly voluntary, but mainly
reflex, and is performed in the most natural and best manner
without the interference of the will. A vast number of complex
movements are reflex. As good an instance as can be given is the
often-quoted one of a decapitated frog, which cannot of course
feel, and cannot consciously perform, any movement. Yet if a drop
of acid be placed on the lower surface of the thigh of a frog in
this state, it will rub off the drop with the upper surface of the
foot of the same leg. If this foot be cut off, it cannot thus act.
"After some fruitless efforts, therefore, it gives up trying in
that way, seems restless, as though, says Pfluger, it was seeking
some other way, and at last it makes use of the foot of the other
leg and succeeds in rubbing off the acid. Notably we have here not
merely contractions of muscles, but combined and harmonized
contractions in due sequence for a special purpose. These are
actions that have all the appearance of being guided by
intelligence and instigated by will in an animal, the recognized
organ of whose intelligence and will has been removed."[110]We see the difference between reflex and voluntary movements
in very young children not being able to perform, as I am informed
by Sir Henry Holland, certain acts somewhat analogous to those of
sneezing and coughing, namely, in their not being able to blow
their noses (i. e. to compress the nose and blow violently through
the passage), and in their not being able to clear their throats of
phlegm. They have to learn to perform these acts, yet they are
performed by us, when a little older, almost as easily as reflex
actions. Sneezing and coughing, however, can be controlled by the
will only partially or not at all; whilst the clearing the throat
and blowing the nose are completely under our command.When we are conscious of the presence of an irritating
particle in our nostrils or windpipe—that is, when the same sensory
nerve-cells are excited, as in the case of sneezing and coughing—we
can voluntarily expel the particle by forcibly driving air through
these passages; but we cannot do this with nearly the same force,
rapidity, and precision, as by a reflex action. In this latter case
the sensory nerve-cells apparently excite the motor nerve-cells
without any waste of power by first communicating with the cerebral
hemispheres—the seat of our consciousness and volition. In all
cases there seems to exist a profound antagonism between the same
movements, as directed by the will and by a reflex stimulant, in
the force with which they are performed and in the facility with
which they are excited. As Claude Bernard asserts, "L'influence du
cerveau tend donc a entraver les mouvements reflexes, a limiter
leur force et leur etendue."[111]The conscious wish to perform a reflex action sometimes stops
or interrupts its performance, though the proper sensory nerves may
be stimulated. For instance, many years ago I laid a small wager
with a dozen young men that they would not sneeze if they took
snuff, although they all declared that they invariably did so;
accordingly they all took a pinch, but from wishing much to
succeed, not one sneezed, though their eyes watered, and all,
without exception, had to pay me the wager. Sir H. Holland
remarks[112]that attention paid to the act of swallowing interferes with
the proper movements; from which it probably follows, at least in
part, that some persons find it so difficult to swallow a
pill.Another familiar instance of a reflex action is the
involuntary closing of the eyelids when the surface of the eye is
touched. A similar winking movement is caused when a blow is
directed towards the face; but this is an habitual and not a
strictly reflex action, as the stimulus is conveyed through the
mind and not by the excitement of a peripheral nerve. The whole
body and head are generally at the same time drawn suddenly
backwards. These latter movements, however, can be prevented, if
the danger does not appear to the imagination imminent; but our
reason telling us that there is no danger does not suffice. I may
mention a trifling fact, illustrating this point, and which at the
time amused me. I put my face close to the thick glass-plate in
front of a puff-adder in the Zoological Gardens, with the firm
determination of not starting back if the snake struck at me; but,
as soon as the blow was struck, my resolution went for nothing, and
I jumped a yard or two backwards with astonishing rapidity. My will
and reason were powerless against the imagination of a danger which
had never been experienced.The violence of a start seems to depend partly on the
vividness of the imagination, and partly on the condition, either
habitual or temporary, of the nervous system. He who will attend to
the starting of his horse, when tired and fresh, will perceive how
perfect is the gradation from a mere glance at some unexpected
object, with a momentary doubt whether it is dangerous, to a jump
so rapid and violent, that the animal probably could not
voluntarily whirl round in so rapid a manner. The nervous system of
a fresh and highly-fed horse sends its order to the motory system
so quickly, that no time is allowed for him to consider whether or
not the danger is real. After one violent start, when he is excited
and the blood flows freely through his brain, he is very apt to
start again; and so it is, as I have noticed, with young
infants.A start from a sudden noise, when the stimulus is conveyed
through the auditory nerves, is always accompanied in grown-up
persons by the winking of the eyelids.[113]I observed, however, that though my infants started at sudden
sounds, when under a fortnight old, they certainly did not always
wink their eyes, and I believe never did so. The start of an older
infant apparently represents a vague catching hold of something to
prevent falling. I shook a pasteboard box close before the eyes of
one of my infants, when 114 days old, and it did not in the least
wink; but when I put a few comfits into the box, holding it in the
same position as before, and rattled them, the child blinked its
eyes violently every time, and started a little. It was obviously
impossible that a carefully-guarded infant could have learnt by
experience that a rattling sound near its eyes indicated danger to
them. But such experience will have been slowly gained at a later
age during a long series of generations; and from what we know of
inheritance, there is nothing improbable in the transmission of a
habit to the offspring at an earlier age than that at which it was
first acquired by the parents.From the foregoing remarks it seems probable that some
actions, which were at first performed consciously, have become
through habit and association converted into reflex actions, and
are now so firmly fixed and inherited, that they are performed,
even when not of the least use,[114]as often as the same causes arise, which originally excited
them in us through the volition. In such cases the sensory
nerve-cells excite the motor cells, without first communicating
with those cells on which our consciousness and volition depend. It
is probable that sneezing and coughing were originally acquired by
the habit of expelling, as violently as possible, any irritating
particle from the sensitive air-passages. As far as time is
concerned, there has been more than enough for these habits to have
become innate or converted into reflex actions; for they are common
to most or all of the higher quadrupeds, and must therefore have
been first acquired at a very remote period. Why the act of
clearing the throat is not a reflex action, and has to be learnt by
our children, I cannot pretend to say; but we can see why blowing
the nose on a handkerchief has to be learnt.It is scarcely credible that the movements of a headless
frog, when it wipes off a drop of acid or other object from its
thigh, and which movements are so well coordinated for a special
purpose, were not at first performed voluntarily, being afterwards
rendered easy through long-continued habit so as at last to be
performed unconsciously, or independently of the cerebral
hemispheres.So again it appears probable that starting was originally
acquired by the habit of jumping away as quickly as possible from
danger, whenever any of our senses gave us warning. Starting, as we
have seen, is accompanied by the blinking of the eyelids so as to
protect the eyes, the most tender and sensitive organs of the body;
and it is, I believe, always accompanied by a sudden and forcible
inspiration, which is the natural preparation for any violent
effort. But when a man or horse starts, his heart beats wildly
against his ribs, and here it may be truly said we have an organ
which has never been under the control of the will, partaking in
the general reflex movements of the body. To this point, however, I
shall return in a future chapter.The contraction of the iris, when the retina is stimulated by
a bright light, is another instance of a movement, which it appears
cannot possibly have been at first voluntarily performed and then
fixed by habit; for the iris is not known to be under the conscious
control of the will in any animal. In such cases some explanation,
quite distinct from habit, will have to be discovered. The
radiation of nerve-force from strongly-excited nerve-cells to other
connected cells, as in the case of a bright light on the retina
causing a sneeze, may perhaps aid us in understanding how some
reflex actions originated. A radiation of nerve-force of this kind,
if it caused a movement tending to lessen the primary irritation,
as in the case of the contraction of the iris preventing too much
light from falling on the retina, might afterwards have been taken
advantage of and modified for this special purpose.It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in all
probability liable to slight variations, as are all corporeal
structures and instincts; and any variations which were beneficial
and of sufficient importance, would tend to be preserved and
inherited. Thus reflex actions, when once gained for one purpose,
might afterwards be modified independently of the will or habit, so
as to serve for some distinct purpose. Such cases would be parallel
with those which, as we have every reason to believe, have occurred
with many instincts; for although some instincts have been
developed simply through long-continued and inherited habit, other
highly complex ones have been developed through the preservation of
variations of pre-existing instincts—that is, through natural
selection.I have discussed at some little length, though as I am well
aware, in a very imperfect manner, the acquirement of reflex
actions, because they are often brought into play in connection
with movements expressive of our emotions; and it was necessary to
show that at least some of them might have been Erst acquired
through the will in order to satisfy a desire, or to relieve a
disagreeable sensation.Associated habitual movements in the lower
animals