INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER I. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION.
CHAPTER II. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—continued.
CHAPTER III. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION—concluded.
CHAPTER IV. — MEANS OF EXPRESSION IN ANIMALS.
CHAPTER V. — SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF ANIMALS.
CHAPTER VI. — SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS OF MAN: SUFFERING AND WEEPING.
CHAPTER VII. — LOW SPIRITS, ANXIETY, GRIEF, DEJECTION, DESPAIR.
CHAPTER VIII. — JOY, HIGH SPIRITS, LOVE, TENDER FEELINGS, DEVOTION.
CHAPTER IX. — REFLECTION—MEDITATION-ILL-TEMPER—SULKINESS—DETERMINATION.
CHAPTER X. — HATRED AND ANGER.
CHAPTER XI. — DISDAIN—CONTEMPT—DISGUST-GUILT—PRIDE, ETC.—HELPLESSNESS—PATIENCE—AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION.
CHAPTER XII. — SURPRISE—ASTONISHMENT—FEAR—HORROR.
CHAPTER XIII. — SELF-ATTENTION—SHAME—SHYNESS—MODESTY: BLUSHING.
CHAPTER XIV. — CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUMMARY.
INTRODUCTION.
MANY
works have been written on Expression, but a greater number on
Physiognomy,—that is, on the recognition of character through the
study of the permanent form of the features. With this latter
subject
I am not here concerned. The older treatises,[1]
which I have consulted, have been of little or no service to me.
The
famous 'Conferences'[2]
of the painter Le Brun, published in 1667, is the best known
ancient
work, and contains some good remarks. Another somewhat old essay,
namely, the 'Discours,' delivered 1774-1782, by the well-known
Dutch
anatomist Camper,[3]
can hardly be considered as having made any marked advance in the
subject. The following works, on the contrary, deserve the fullest
consideration.Sir
Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in physiology,
published in 1806 the first edition, and in the third edition of
his
'Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression.'[4]
He may with justice be said, not only to have laid the foundations
of
the subject as a branch of science, but to have built up a noble
structure. His work is in every way deeply interesting; it includes
graphic descriptions of the various emotions, and is admirably
illustrated. It is generally admitted that his service consists
chiefly in having shown the intimate relation which exists between
the movements of expression and those of respiration. One of the
most
important points, small as it may at first appear, is that the
muscles round the eyes are involuntarily contracted during violent
expiratory efforts, in order to protect these delicate organs from
the pressure of the blood. This fact, which has been fully
investigated for me with the greatest kindness by Professors
Donders
of Utrecht, throws, as we shall hereafter see, a flood of light on
several of the most important expressions of the human countenance.
The merits of Sir C. Bell's work have been undervalued or quite
ignored by several foreign writers, but have been fully admitted by
some, for instance by M. Lemoine,[5]
who with great justice says:—"Le livre de Ch. Bell devrait
etre medite par quiconque essaye de faire parler le visage de
l'homme, par les philosophes aussi bien que par les artistes, car,
sous une apparence plus legere et sous le pretexte de l'esthetique,
c'est un des plus beaux monuments de la science des rapports du
physique et du moral."From
reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir C. Bell did not
attempt
to follow out his views as far as they might have been carried. He
does not try to explain why different muscles are brought into
action
under different emotions; why, for instance, the inner ends of the
eyebrows are raised, and the corners of the mouth depressed, by a
person suffering from grief or anxiety.In
1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater on Physiognomy,[6]
in which he incorporated several of his own essays, containing
excellent descriptions of the movements of the facial muscles,
together with many valuable remarks. He throws, however, very
little
light on the philosophy of the subject. For instance, M. Moreau, in
speaking of the act of frowning, that is, of the contraction of the
muscle called by French writers the
soucilier
(corrigator
supercilii),
remarks with truth:—"Cette action des sourciliers est un des
symptomes les plus tranches de l'expression des affections penibles
ou concentrees." He then adds that these muscles, from their
attachment and position, are fitted "a resserrer, a concentrer
les principaux traits de la
face, comme il
convient dans toutes ces passions vraiment oppressives ou
profondes,
dans ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter l'organisation
a
revenir sur elle-meme, a se contracter et a
s'amoindrir, comme
pour offrir moins de prise et de surface a des impressions
redoutables ou importunes." He who thinks that remarks of this
kind throw any light on the meaning or origin of the different
expressions, takes a very different view of the subject to what I
do.The
earliest edition of this work, referred to in the preface to the
edition of 1820 in ten volumes, as containing the observations of
M.
Moreau, is said to have been published in 1807; and I have no doubt
that this is correct, because the 'Notice sur Lavater' at the
commencement of volume i. is dated April 13, 1806. In some
bibliographical works, however, the date of 1805—1809 is given, but
it seems impossible that 1805 can be correct. Dr. Duchenne remarks
('Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,'-8vo edit. 1862, p. 5, and
'Archives Generales de Medecine,' Jan. et Fev. 1862) that M. Moreau
"a compose pour
son ouvrage un article important,"
&c., in the year 1805; and I find in volume i. of the edition
of
1820 passages bearing the dates of December 12, 1805, and another
January 5, 1806, besides that of April 13, 1806, above referred to.
In consequence of some of these passages having thus been COMPOSED
in
1805, Dr. Duchenne assigns to M. Moreau the priority over Sir C.
Bell, whose work, as we have seen, was published in 1806. This is a
very unusual manner of determining the priority of scientific
works;
but such questions are of extremely little importance in comparison
with their relative merits. The passages above quoted from M.
Moreau
and from Le Brun are taken in this and all other cases from the
edition of 1820 of Lavater, tom. iv. p. 228, and tom. ix. p. 279.
In
the above passage there is but a slight, if any, advance in the
philosophy of the subject, beyond that reached by the painter Le
Brun, who, in 1667, in describing the expression of fright,
says:—"Le
sourcil qui est abaisse d'un cote et eleve de l'autre, fait voir
que
la partie elevee semble le vouloir joindre au cerveau pour le
garantir du mal que l'ame apercoit, et le cote qui est abaisse et
qui
parait enfle,—nous fait trouver dans cet etat par les esprits qui
viennent du cerveau en abondance, comme polir couvrir l'aine et la
defendre du mal qu'elle craint; la bouche fort ouverte fait voir le
saisissement du coeur, par le sang qui se retire vers lui, ce qui
l'oblige, voulant respirer, a faire un effort qui est cause que la
bouche s'ouvre extremement, et qui, lorsqu'il passe par les organes
de la voix, forme un son qui n'est point articule; que si les
muscles
et les veines paraissent enfles, ce n'est que par les esprits que
le
cerveau envoie en ces parties-la." I have thought the foregoing
sentences worth quoting, as specimens of the surprising nonsense
which has been written on the subject.'The
Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,' by Dr. Burgess, appeared in
1839, and to this work I shall frequently refer in my thirteenth
Chapter.In
1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in folio and octavo, of
his
'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' in which he analyses by
means
of electricity, and illustrates by magnificent photographs, the
movements of the facial muscles. He has generously permitted me to
copy as many of his photographs as I desired. His works have been
spoken lightly of, or quite passed over, by some of his countrymen.
It is possible that Dr. Duchenne may have exaggerated the
importance
of the contraction of single muscles in giving expression; for,
owing
to the intimate manner in which the muscles are connected, as may
be
seen in Henle's anatomical drawings[7]—the
best I believe ever published it is difficult to believe in their
separate action. Nevertheless, it is manifest that Dr. Duchenne
clearly apprehended this and other sources of error, and as it is
known that he was eminently successful in elucidating the
physiology
of the muscles of the hand by the aid of electricity, it is
probable
that he is generally in the right about the muscles of the face. In
my opinion, Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced the subject by his
treatment of it. No one has more carefully studied the contraction
of
each separate muscle, and the consequent furrows produced on the
skin. He has also, and this is a very important service, shown
which
muscles are least under the separate control of the will. He enters
very little into theoretical considerations, and seldom attempts to
explain why certain muscles and not others contract under the
influence of certain emotions. A distinguished French anatomist,
Pierre Gratiolet, gave a course of lectures on Expression at the
Sorbonne, and his notes were published (1865) after his death,
under
the title of 'De la Physionomie et des Mouvements d'Expression.'
This
is a very interesting work, full of valuable observations. His
theory
is rather complex, and, as far as it can be given in a single
sentence (p. 65), is as follows:—"Il resulte, de tous les
faits que j'ai rappeles, que les sens, l'imagination et la pensee
ellememe, si elevee, si abstraite qu'on la suppose, ne peuvent
s'exercer sans eveiller un sentiment correlatif, et que ce
sentiment
se traduit directement, sympathiquement, symboliquement ou
metaphoriquement, dans toutes les spheres des organs exterieurs,
qui
la racontent tous, suivant leur mode d'action propre, comme si
chacun
d'eux avait ete directement affecte."Gratiolet
appears to overlook inherited habit, and even to some extent habit
in
the individual; and therefore he fails, as it seems to me, to give
the right explanation, or any explanation at all, of many gestures
and expressions. As an illustration of what he calls symbolic
movements, I will quote his remarks (p. 37), taken from M.
Chevreul,
on a man playing at billiards. "Si une bille devie legerement de
la direction que le joueur pretend zlui imprimer, ne l'avez-vous
pas
vu cent fois la pousser du regard, de la tete et meme des epaules,
comme si ces mouvements, purement symboliques, pouvaient rectifier
son trajet? Des mouvements non moins significatifs se produisent
quand la bille manque d'une impulsion suffisante. Et cliez les
joueurs novices, ils sont quelquefois accuses au point d'eveiller
le
sourire sur les levres des spectateurs." Such movements, as it
appeirs to me, may be attributed simply to habit. As often as a man
has wished to move an object to one side, he has always pushed it
to
that side when forwards, he has pushed it forwards; and if he has
wished to arrest it, he has pulled backwards. Therefore, when a man
sees his ball travelling in a wrong direction, and he intensely
wishes it to go in another direction, he cannot avoid, from long
habit, unconsciously performing movements which in other cases he
has
found effectual.As
an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives (p. 212) the
following case:—"un jeune chien A oreilles droites, auquel son
maitre presente de loin quelque viande appetissante, fixe avec
ardeur
ses yeux sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements, et pendant
que les yeux regardent, les deux oreilles se portent en avant comme
si cet objet pouvait etre entendu." Here, instead of speaking of
sympathy between the ears and eyes, it appears to me more simple to
believe, that as dogs during many generations have, whilst intently
looking at any object, pricked their ears in order to perceive any
sound; and conversely have looked intently in the direction of a
sound to which they may have listened, the movements of these
organs
have become firmly associated together through long-continued
habit.Dr.
Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, which I have not
seen, but in which, as he states, he forestalled Gratiolet in many
of
his views. In 1867 he published his 'Wissenschaftliches System der
Mimik und Physiognomik.' It is hardly possible to give in a few
sentences a fair notion of his views; perhaps the two following
sentences will tell as much as can be briefly told: "the
muscular movements of expression are in part related to imaginary
objects, and in part to imaginary sensorial impressions. In this
proposition lies the key to the comprehension of all expressive
muscular movements." (s. 25) Again, "Expressive movements
manifest themselves chiefly in the numerous and mobile muscles of
the
face, partly because the nerves by which they are set into motion
originate in the most immediate vicinity of the mind-organ, but
partly also because these muscles serve to support the organs of
sense." (s. 26.) If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir C. Bell's work,
he would probably not have said (s. 101) that violent laughter
causes
a frown from partaking of the nature of pain; or that with infants
(s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes, and thus excite the
contraction
of the surrounding in muscles. Many good remarks are scattered
throughout this volume, to which I shall hereafter refer.Short
discussions on Expression may be found in various works, which need
not here be particularised. Mr. Bain, however, in two of his works
has treated the subject at some length. He says,[8]
"I look upon the expression so-called as part and parcel of the
feeling. I believe it to be a general law of the mind that along
with
the fact of inward feeling or consciousness, there is a diffusive
action or excitement over the bodily members." In another place
he adds, "A very considerable number of the facts may be brought
under the following principle: namely, that states of pleasure are
connected with an increase, and states of pain with an abatement,
of
some, or all, of the vital functions." But the above law of the
diffusive action of feelings seems too general to throw much light
on
special expressions.Mr.
Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in his 'Principles of
Psychology' (1855), makes the following remarks:—"Fear, when
strong, expresses itself in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in
palpitations and tremblings; and these are just the manifestations
that would accompany an actual experience of the evil feared. The
destructive passions are shown in a general tension of the muscular
system, in gnashing of the teeth and protrusion of the claws, in
dilated eyes and nostrils in growls; and these are weaker forms of
the actions that accompany the killing of prey." Here we have,
as I believe, the true theory of a large number of expressions; but
the chief interest and difficulty of the subject lies in following
out the wonderfully complex results. I infer that some one (but who
he is I have not been able to ascertain) formerly advanced a nearly
similar view, for Sir C. Bell says,[9]
"It has been maintained that what are called the external signs
of passion, are only the concomitants of those voluntary movements
which the structure renders necessary." Mr. Spencer has also
published[10]
a valuable essay on the physiology of Laughter, in which he insists
on "the general law that feeling passing a certain pitch,
habitually vents itself in bodily action," and that "an
overflow of nerve-force undirected by any motive, will manifestly
take first the most habitual routes; and if these do not suffice,
will next overflow into the less habitual ones." This law I
believe to be of the highest importance in throwing light on our
subject.'[11]All
the authors who have written on Expression, with the exception of
Mr.
Spencer—the great expounder of the principle of Evolution—appear
to have been firmly convinced that species, man of course included,
came into existence in their present condition. Sir C. Bell, being
thus convinced, maintains that many of our facial muscles are
"purely
instrumental in expression;" or are "a special provision"
for this sole object.[12]
But the simple fact that the anthropoid apes possess the same
facial
muscles as we do,[13]
renders it very improbable that these muscles in our case serve
exclusively for expression; for no one, I presume, would be
inclined
to admit that monkeys have been endowed with special muscles solely
for exhibiting their hideous grimaces. Distinct uses, independently
of expression, can indeed be assigned with much probability for
almost all the facial muscles.Sir
C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction as possible
between man and the lower animals; and he consequently asserts that
with "the lower creatures there is no expression but what may be
referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of volition or
necessary instincts." He further maintains that their faces
"seem chiefly capable of expressing rage and fear."[14]
But man himself cannot express love and humility by external signs,
so plainly as does a dog, when with drooping ears, hanging lips,
flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets his beloved master. Nor
can
these movements in the dog be explained by acts of volition or
necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes and smiling
cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell had
been
questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he would
no
doubt have answered that this animal had been created with special
instincts, adapting him for association with man, and that all
further enquiry on the subject was superfluous.Although
Gratiolet emphatically denies[15]
that any muscle has been developed solely for the sake of
expression,
he seems never to have reflected on the principle of evolution. He
apparently looks at each species as a separate creation. So it is
with the other writers on Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne,
after speaking of the movements of the limbs, refers to those which
give expression to the face, and remarks:[16]
"Le createur n'a donc pas eu a se preoccuper ici des besoins de
la mecanique; il a pu, selon sa sagesse, ou—que l'on me pardonne
cette maniere de parler—par une divine fantaisie, mettre en action
tel ou tel muscle, un seul ou plusieurs muscles a la fois,
lorsqu'il
a voulu que les signes caracteristiques des passions, meme les plus
fugaces, lussent ecrits passagerement sur la face de l'homme. Ce
langage de la physionomie une fois cree, il lui a suffi, pour le
rendre universel et immuable, de donner a tout etre humain la
faculte
instinctive d'exprimer toujours ses sendments par la contraction
des
memes muscles."Many
writers consider the whole subject of Expression as inexplicable.
Thus the illustrious physiologist Muller, says,[17]
"The completely different expression of the features in
different passions shows that, according to the kind of feeling
excited, entirely different groups of the fibres of the facial
nerve
are acted on. Of the cause of this we are quite ignorant."No
doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed as
independent
creations, an effectual stop is put to our natural desire to
investigate as far as possible the causes of Expression. By this
doctrine, anything and everything can be equally well explained;
and
it has proved as pernicious with respect to Expression as to every
other branch of natural history. With mankind some expressions,
such
as the bristling of the hair under the influence of extreme terror,
or the uncovering of the teeth under that of furious rage, can
hardly
be understood, except on the belief that man once existed in a much
lower and animal-like condition. The community of certain
expressions
in distinct though allied species, as in the movements of the same
facial muscles during laughter by man and by various monkeys, is
rendered somewhat more intelligible, if we believe in their descent
from a common progenitor. He who admits on general grounds that the
structure and habits of all animals have been gradually evolved,
will
look at the whole subject of Expression in a new and interesting
light.The
study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements being
often
extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature. A difference may be
clearly perceived, and yet it may be impossible, at least I have
found it so, to state in what the difference consists. When we
witness any deep emotion, our sympathy is so strongly excited, that
close observation is forgotten or rendered almost impossible; of
which fact I have had many curious proofs. Our imagination is
another
and still more serious source of error; for if from the nature of
the
circumstances we expect to see any expression, we readily imagine
its
presence. Notwithstanding Dr. Duchenne's great experience, he for a
long time fancied, as he states, that several muscles contracted
under certain emotions, whereas he ultimately convinced himself
that
the movement was confined to a single muscle.In
order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to
ascertain,
independently of common opinion, how far particular movements of
the
features and gestures are really expressive of certain states of
the
mind, I have found the following means the most serviceable. In the
first place, to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions, as
Sir C. Bell remarks, "with extraordinary force;" whereas,
in after life, some of our expressions "cease to have the pure
and simple source from which they spring in infancy."[18]In
the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought to be
studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and give
uncontrolled vent to them. I had, myself, no opportunity of doing
this, so I applied to Dr. Maudsley and received from him an
introduction to Dr. J. Crichton Browne, who has charge of an
immense
asylum near Wakefield, and who, as I found, had already attended to
the subject. This excellent observer has with unwearied kindness
sent
me copious notes and descriptions, with valuable suggestions on
many
points; and I can hardly over-estimate the value of his assistance.
I
owe also, to the kindness of Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex
Lunatic
Asylum, interesting statements on two or three points.Thirdly
Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have already seen, certain muscles
in
the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and thus
produced various expressions which were photographed on a large
scale. It fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best
plates, without a word of explanation, to above twenty educated
persons of various ages and both sexes, asking them, in each case,
by
what emotion or feeling the old man was supposed to be agitated;
and
I recorded their answers in the words which they used. Several of
the
expressions were instantly recognised by almost everyone, though
described in not exactly the same terms; and these may, I think, be
relied on as truthful, and will hereafter be specified. On the
other
hand, the most widely different judgments were pronounced in regard
to some of them. This exhibition was of use in another way, by
convincing me how easily we may be misguided by our imagination;
for
when I first looked through Dr. Duchenne's photographs, reading at
the same time the text, and thus learning what was intended, I was
struck with admiration at the truthfulness of all, with only a few
exceptions. Nevertheless, if I had examined them without any
explanation, no doubt I should have been as much perplexed, in some
cases, as other persons have been.Fourthly,
I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters in painting
and
sculpture, who are such close observers. Accordingly, I have looked
at photographs and engravings of many well-known works; but, with a
few exceptions, have not thus profited. The reason no doubt is,
that
in works of art, beauty is the chief object; and strongly
contracted
facial muscles destroy beauty.[19]
The story of the composition is generally told with wonderful force
and truth by skilfully given accessories.Fifthly,
it seemed to me highly important to ascertain whether the same
expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been asserted
without
much evidence, with all the races of mankind, especially with those
who have associated but little with Europeans. Whenever the same
movements of the features or body express the same emotions in
several distinct races of man, we may infer with much probability,
that such expressions are true ones,—that is, are innate or
instinctive. Conventional expressions or gestures, acquired by the
individual during early life, would probably have differed in the
different races, in the same manner as do their languages.
Accordingly I circulated, early in the year 1867, the following
printed queries with a request, which has been fully responded to,
that actual observations, and not memory, might be trusted. These
queries were written after a considerable interval of time, during
which my attention had been otherwise directed, and I can now see
that they might have been greatly improved. To some of the later
copies, I appended, in manuscript, a few additional
remarks:—(1.)
Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide,
and by the eyebrows being raised?(2.)
Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it to
be
visible? and especially how low down the body does the blush
extend?(3.)
When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body and
head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists?(4)
When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to understand any
puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower
eyelids?(5.)
When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed, and
the
inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which the French
call the "Grief muscle"? The eyebrow in this state becomes
slightly oblique, with a little swelling at the Inner end; and the
forehead is transversely wrinkled in the middle part, but not
across
the whole breadth, as when the eyebrows are raised in surprise.
(6.)
When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little
wrinkled round and under them, and with the mouth a little drawn
back
at the corners?(7.)
When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper
lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man
whom he addresses?(8)
Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which is
chiefly
shown by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering brow and a
slight
frown?(9.)
Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips and by
turning up the nose, and with a slight expiration?(10)
Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the upper lip
slightly raised, with a sudden expiration, something like incipient
vomiting, or like something spit out of the mouth?(11.)
Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with
Europeans?(12.)
Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears into
the eyes?(13.)
When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something being
done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders,
turn inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and open the
palms; with the eyebrows raised?(14)
Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the
lips?(15.)
Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized? though I
know not how these can be defined.(16.)
Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken laterally
in
negation?Observations
on natives who have had little communication with Europeans would
be
of course the most valuable, though those made on any natives would
be of much interest to me. General remarks on expression are of
comparatively little value; and memory is so deceptive that I
earnestly beg it may not be trusted. A definite description of the
countenance under any emotion or frame of mind, with a statement of
the circumstances under which it occurred, would possess much
value.To
these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different
observers, several of them missionaries or protectors of the
aborigines, to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great
trouble
which they have taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. I
will
specify their names, &c., towards the close of this chapter, so
as not to interrupt my present remarks. The answers relate to
several
of the most distinct and savage races of man. In many instances,
the
circumstances have been recorded under which each expression was
observed, and the expression itself described. In such cases, much
confidence may be placed in the answers. When the answers have been
simply yes or no, I have always received them with caution. It
follows, from the information thus acquired, that the same state of
mind is expressed throughout the world with remarkable uniformity;
and this fact is in itself interesting as evidence of the close
similarity in bodily structure and mental disposition of all the
races, of mankind.Sixthly,
and lastly, I have attended as closely as I could, to the
expression
of the several passions in some of the commoner animals; and this I
believe to be of paramount importance, not of course for deciding
how
far in man certain expressions are characteristic of certain states
of mind, but as affording the safest basis for generalisation on
the
causes, or origin, of the various movements of Expression. In
observing animals, we are not so likely to be biassed by our
imagination; and we may feel safe that their expressions are not
conventional.From
the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature of some
expressions (the changes in the features being often extremely
slight); our sympathy being easily aroused when we behold any
strong
emotion, and our attention thus distracted; our imagination
deceiving
us, from knowing in a vague manner what to expect, though certainly
few of us know what the exact changes in the countenance are; and
lastly, even our long familiarity with the subject,—from all these
causes combined, the observation of Expression is by no means easy,
as many persons, whom I have asked to observe certain points, have
soon discovered. Hence it is difficult to determine, with
certainty,
what are the movements of the features and of the body, which
commonly characterize certain states of the mind. Nevertheless,
some
of the doubts and difficulties have, as I hope, been cleared away
by
the observation of infants,—of the insane,—of the different races
of man,—of works of art,—and lastly, of the facial muscles under
the action of galvanism, as effected by Dr. Duchenne.But
there remains the much greater difficulty of understanding the
cause
or origin of the several expressions, and of judging whether any
theoretical explanation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as well as
we can by our reason, without the aid of any rules, which of two or
more explanations is the most satisfactory, or are quite
unsatisfactory, I see only one way of testing our conclusions. This
is to observe whether the same principle by which one expression
can,
as it appears, be explained, is applicable in other allied cases;
and
especially, whether the same general principles can be applied with
satisfactory results, both to man and the lower animals. This
latter
method, I am inclined to think, is the most serviceable of all. The
difficulty of judging of the truth of any theoretical explanation,
and of testing it by some distinct line of investigation, is the
great drawback to that interest which the study seems well fitted
to
excite.Finally,
with respect to my own observations, I may state that they were
commenced in the year 1838; and from that time to the present day,
I
have occasionally attended to the subject. At the above date, I was
already inclined to believe in the principle of evolution, or of
the
derivation of species from other and lower forms. Consequently,
when
I read Sir C. Bell's great work, his view, that man had been
created
with certain muscles specially adapted for the expression of his
feelings, struck me as unsatisfactory. It seemed probable that the
habit of expressing our feelings by certain movements, though now
rendered innate, had been in some manner gradually acquired. But to
discover how such habits had been acquired was perplexing in no
small
degree. The whole subject had to be viewed under a new aspect, and
each expression demanded a rational explanation. This belief led me
to attempt the present work, however imperfectly it may have been
executed.————I
will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have said, I
am deeply indebted for information in regard to the expressions
exhibited by various races of man, and I will specify some of the
circumstances under which the observations were in each case made.
Owing to the great kindness and powerful influence of Mr. Wilson,
of
Hayes Place, Kent, I have received from Australia no less than
thirteen sets of answers to my queries. This has been particularly
fortunate, as the Australian aborigines rank amongst the most
distinct of all the races of man. It will be seen that the
observations have been chiefly made in the south, in the outlying
parts of the colony of Victoria; but some excellent answers have
been
received from the north.Mr.
Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valuable observations, made
several hundred miles in the interior of Queensland. To Mr. R.
Brough
Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much indebted for observations made by
himself, and for sending me several of the following letters,
namely:—From the Rev. Mr. Hagenauer, of Lake Wellington, a
missionary in Gippsland, Victoria, who has had much experience with
the natives. From Mr. Samuel Wilson, a landowner, residing at
Langerenong, Wimmera, Victoria. From the Rev. George Taplin,
superintendent of the native Industrial Settlement at Port Macleay.
From Mr. Archibald G. Lang, of Coranderik, Victoria, a teacher at a
school where aborigines, old and young, are collected from all
parts
of the colony. From Mr. H. B. Lane, of Belfast, Victoria, a police
magistrate and warden, whose observations, as I am assured, are
highly trustworthy. From Mr. Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose
station is on the borders of the colony of Victoria, and who has
thus
been able to observe many aborigines who have had little
intercourse
with white men. He compared his observations with those made by two
other gentlemen long resident in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr.
J.
Bulmer, a missionary in a remote part of Gippsland,
Victoria.I
am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. Ferdinand
Muller,
of Victoria, for some observations made by himself, and for sending
me others made by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing
letters.In
regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Rev. J. W. Stack has
answered only a few of my queries; but the answers have been
remarkably full, clear, and distinct, with the circumstances
recorded
under which the observations were made.The
Rajah Brooke has given me some information with respect to the
Dyaks
of Borneo.Respecting
the Malays, I have been highly successful; for Mr. F. Geach (to
whom
I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his residence as a mining
engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed many natives, who had
never before associated with white men. He wrote me two long
letters
with admirable and detailed observations on their expression. He
likewise observed the Chinese immigrants in the Malay
archipelago.The
well-known naturalist, H. M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, also observed for
me the Chinese in their native country; and he made inquiries from
others whom he could trust.In
India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official capacity in
the
Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency, attended to the
expression of the inhabitants, but found much difficulty in
arriving
at any safe conclusions, owing to their habitual concealment of all
emotions in the presence of Europeans. He also obtained information
for me from Mr. West, the Judge in Canara, and he consulted some
intelligent native gentlemen on certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J.
Scott, curator of the Botanic Gardens, carefully observed the
various
tribes of men therein employed during a considerable period, and no
one has sent me such full and valuable details. The habit of
accurate
observation, gained by his botanical studies, has been brought to
bear on our present subject. For Ceylon I am much indebted to the
Rev. S. O. Glenie for answers to some of my queries.Turning
to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to the negroes,
though Mr. Winwood Reade aided me as far as lay in his power. It
would have been comparatively easy to have obtained information in
regard to the negro slaves in America; but as they have long
associated with white men, such observations would have possessed
little value. In the southern parts of the continent Mrs. Barber
observed the Kafirs and Fingoes, and sent me many distinct answers.
Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also made some observations on the natives,
and procured for me a curious document, namely, the opinion,
written
in English, of Christian Gaika, brother of the Chief Sandilli, on
the
expressions of his fellow-countrymen. In the northern regions of
Africa Captain Speedy, who long resided with the Abyssinians,
answered my queries partly from memory and partly from observations
made on the son of King Theodore, who was then under his charge.
Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray attended to some points in the
expressions of the natives, as observed by them whilst ascending
the
Nile.On
the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist residing with
the Fuegians, answered some few questions about their expression,
addressed to him many years ago. In the northern half of the
continent Dr. Rothrock attended to the expressions of the wild
Atnah
and Espyox tribes on the Nasse River, in North-Western America. Mr.
Washington Matthews Assistant-Surgeon in the United States Army,
also
observed with special care (after having seen my queries, as
printed
in the 'Smithsonian Report') some of the wildest tribes in the
Western parts of the United States, namely, the Tetons,
Grosventres,
Mandans, and Assinaboines; and his answers have proved of the
highest
value.Lastly,
besides these special sources of information, I have collected some
few facts incidentally given in books of travels.——As
I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter part of
this volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a diagram
(fig. 1) copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell's work, and two
others,
with more accurate details (figs. 2 and 3), from Herde's well-known
'Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.' The same
letters
refer to the same muscles in all three figures, but the names are
given of only the more important ones to which I shall have to
allude. The facial muscles blend much together, and, as I am
informed, hardly appear on a dissected face so distinct as they are
here represented. Some writers consider that these muscles consist
of
nineteen pairs, with one unpaired;[20]
but others make the number much larger, amounting even to
fifty-five,
according to Moreau. They are, as is admitted by everyone who has
written on the subject, very variable in structure; and Moreau
remarks that they are hardly alike in half-a-dozen subjects.[21]
They are also variable in function. Thus the power of uncovering
the
canine tooth on one side differs much in different persons. The
power
of raising the wings of the nostrils is also, according to Dr.
Piderit,[22]
variable in a remarkable degree; and other such cases could be
given.Finally,
I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to Mr.
Rejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for
me
various expressions and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr
Kindermann, of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of
crying infants; and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one of a smiling
girl. I have already expressed my obligations to Dr. Duchenne for
generously permitting me to have some of his large photographs
copied
and reduced. All these photographs have been printed by the
Heliotype
process, and the accuracy of the copy is thus guaranteed. These
plates are referred to by Roman numerals.I
am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme pains
which he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of various
animals. A distinguished artist, Mr. Riviere, has had the kindness
to
give me two drawings of dogs—one in a hostile and the other in a
humble and caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has also given me
two
similar sketches of dogs. Mr. Cooper has taken much care in cutting
the blocks. Some of the photographs and drawings, namely, those by
Mr. May, and those by Mr. Wolf of the Cynopithecus, were first
reproduced by Mr. Cooper on wood by means of photography, and then
engraved: by this means almost complete fidelity is ensured.
CHAPTER I. — GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
EXPRESSION.
The three chief principles
stated—The first principle—Serviceable actions become habitual in
association with certain states of the mind, and are performed
whether or not of service in each particular case—The force of
habit—Inheritance—Associated habitual movements in man—Reflex
actions—Passage of habits into reflex actions—Associated habitual
movements in the lower animals—Concluding remarks.I WILL begin by giving the three Principles, which appear to
me to account for most of the expressions and gestures
involuntarily used by man and the lower animals, under the
influence of various emotions and sensations.[101]I arrived,
however, at these three Principles only at the close of my
observations. They will be discussed in the present and two
following chapters in a general manner. Facts observed both with
man and the lower animals will here be made use of; but the latter
facts are preferable, as less likely to deceive us. In the fourth
and fifth chapters, I will describe the special expressions of some
of the lower animals; and in the succeeding chapters those of man.
Everyone will thus be able to judge for himself, how far my three
principles throw light on the theory of the subject. It appears to
me that so many expressions are thus explained in a fairly
satisfactory manner, that probably all will hereafter be found to
come under the same or closely analogous heads. I need hardly
premise that movements or changes in any part of the body,—as the
wagging of a dog's tail, the drawing back of a horse's ears, the
shrugging of a man's shoulders, or the dilatation of the capillary
vessels of the skin,—may all equally well serve for expression. The
three Principles are as follows.I.The principle of serviceable associated
Habits.—Certain complex actions are of direct or
indirect service under certain states of the mind, in order to
relieve or gratify certain sensations, desires, &c.; and
whenever the same state of mind is induced, however feebly, there
is a tendency through the force of habit and association for the
same movements to be performed, though they may not then be of the
least use. Some actions ordinarily associated through habit with
certain states of the mind may be partially repressed through the
will, and in such cases the muscles which are least under the
separate control of the will are the most liable still to act,
causing movements which we recognize as expressive. In certain
other cases the checking of one habitual movement requires other
slight movements; and these are likewise expressive.II.The principle of Antithesis.—Certain states of the mind lead to certain habitual
actions, which are of service, as under our first principle. Now
when a directly opposite state of mind is induced, there is a
strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of movements of
a directly opposite nature, though these are of no use; and such
movements are in some cases highly expressive.III.The principle of actions due to the
constitution of the Nervous System, independently from the first of
the Will, and independently to a certain extent of
Habit.—When the sensorium is strongly excited,
nerve-force is generated in excess, and is transmitted in certain
definite directions, depending on the connection of the
nerve-cells, and partly on habit: or the supply of nerve-force may,
as it appears, be interrupted. Effects are thus produced which we
recognize as expressive. This third principle may, for the sake of
brevity, be called that of the direct action of the nervous
system.With respect to ourfirst
Principle, it is notorious how powerful is the
force of habit. The most complex and difficult movements can in
time be performed without the least effort or consciousness. It is
not positively known how it comes that habit is so efficient in
facilitating complex movements; but physiologists admit[102]"that the
conducting power of the nervous fibres increases with the frequency
of their excitement." This applies to the nerves of motion and
sensation, as well as to those connected with the act of thinking.
That some physical change is produced in the nerve-cells or nerves
which are habitually used can hardly be doubted, for otherwise it
is impossible to understand how the tendency to certain acquired
movements is inherited. That they are inherited we see with horses
in certain transmitted paces, such as cantering and ambling, which
are not natural to them,—in the pointing of young pointers and the
setting of young setters—in the peculiar manner of flight of
certain breeds of the pigeon, &c. We have analogous cases with
mankind in the inheritance of tricks or unusual gestures, to which
we shall presently recur. To those who admit the gradual evolution
of species, a most striking instance of the perfection with which
the most difficult consensual movements can be transmitted, is
afforded by the humming-bird Sphinx-moth (Macroglossa); for this moth, shortly
after its emergence from the cocoon, as shown by the bloom on its
unruffled scales, may be seen poised stationary in the air, with
its long hair-like proboscis uncurled and inserted into the minute
orifices of flowers; and no one, I believe, has ever seen this moth
learning to perform its difficult task, which requires such
unerring aim.When there exists an inherited or instinctive tendency to the
performance of an action, or an inherited taste for certain kinds
of food, some degree of habit in the individual is often or
generally requisite. We find this in the paces of the horse, and to
a certain extent in the pointing of dogs; although some young dogs
point excellently the first time they are taken out, yet they often
associate the proper inherited attitude with a wrong odour, and
even with eyesight. I have heard it asserted that if a calf be
allowed to suck its mother only once, it is much more difficult
afterwards to rear it by hand.[103]Caterpillars which
have been fed on the leaves of one kind of tree, have been known to
perish from hunger rather than to eat the leaves of another tree,
although this afforded them their proper food, under a state of
nature;[104]and so it is in
many other cases.The power of Association is admitted by everyone. Mr. Bain
remarks, that "actions, sensations and states of feeling, occurring
together or in close succession, tend to grow together, or cohere,
in such a way that when any one of them is afterwards presented to
the mind, the others are apt to be brought up in idea."[105]It is so important
for our purpose fully to recognize that actions readily become
associated with other actions and with various states of the mind,
that I will give a good many instances, in the first place relating
to man, and afterwards to the lower animals. Some of the instances
are of a very trifling nature, but they are as good for our purpose
as more important habits. It is known to everyone how difficult, or
even impossible it is, without repeated trials, to move the limbs
in certain opposed directions which have never been practised.
Analogous cases occur with sensations, as in the common experiment
of rolling a marble beneath the tips of two crossed fingers, when
it feels exactly like two marbles. Everyone protects himself when
falling to the ground by extending his arms, and as Professor
Alison has remarked, few can resist acting thus, when voluntarily
falling on a soft bed. A man when going out of doors puts on his
gloves quite unconsciously; and this may seem an extremely simple
operation, but he who has taught a child to put on gloves, knows
that this is by no means the case.When our minds are much affected, so are the movements of our
bodies; but here another principle besides habit, namely the
undirected overflow of nerve-force, partially comes into play.
Norfolk, in speaking of Cardinal Wolsey, says—"Some strange commotionIs in his brain; he bites his lip and starts;Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground,Then, lays his finger on his temple: straight,Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again,Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he castsHis eye against the moon: in most strange posturesWe have seen him set himself."—Hen.
VIII., act 3, sc. 2.A vulgar man often scratches his head when perplexed in mind;
and I believe that he acts thus from habit, as if he experienced a
slightly uncomfortable bodily sensation, namely, the itching of his
head, to which he is particularly liable, and which he thus
relieves. Another man rubs his eyes when perplexed, or gives a
little cough when embarrassed, acting in either case as if he felt
a slightly uncomfortable sensation in his eyes or windpipe.[106]From the continued use of the eyes, these organs are
especially liable to be acted on through association under various
states of the mind, although there is manifestly nothing to be
seen. A man, as Gratiolet remarks, who vehemently rejects a
proposition, will almost certainly shut his eyes or turn away his
face; but if he accepts the proposition, he will nod his head in
affirmation and open his eyes widely. The man acts in this latter
case as if he clearly saw the thing, and in the former case as if
he did not or would not see it. I have noticed that persons in
describing a horrid sight often shut their eyes momentarily and
firmly, or shake their heads, as if not to see or to drive away
something disagreeable; and I have caught myself, when thinking in
the dark of a horrid spectacle, closing my eyes firmly. In looking
suddenly at any object, or in looking all around, everyone raises
his eyebrows, so that the eyes may be quickly and widely opened;
and Duchenne remarks that[107]a person in trying
to remember something often raises his eyebrows, as if to see it. A
Hindoo gentleman made exactly the same remark to Mr. Erskine in
regard to his countrymen. I noticed a young lady earnestly trying
to recollect a painter's name, and she first looked to one corner
of the ceiling and then to the opposite corner, arching the one
eyebrow on that side; although, of course, there was nothing to be
seen there.In most of the foregoing cases, we can understand how the
associated movements were acquired through habit; but with some
individuals, certain strange gestures or tricks have arisen in
association with certain states of the mind, owing to wholly
inexplicable causes, and are undoubtedly inherited. I have
elsewhere given one instance from my own observation of an
extraordinary and complex gesture, associated with pleasurable
feelings, which was transmitted from a father to his daughter, as
well as some other analogous facts.[108]Another curious instance of an odd inherited movement,
associated with the wish to obtain an object, will be given in the
course of this volume.There are other actions which are commonly performed under
certain circumstances, independently of habit, and which seem to be
due to imitation or some sort of sympathy. Thus persons cutting
anything with a pair of scissors may be seen to move their jaws
simultaneously with the blades of the scissors. Children learning
to write often twist about their tongues as their fingers move, in
a ridiculous fashion. When a public singer suddenly becomes a
little hoarse, many of those present may be heard, as I have been
assured by a gentleman on whom I can rely, to clear their throats;
but here habit probably comes into play, as we clear our own
throats under similar circumstances. I have also been told that at
leaping matches, as the performer makes his spring, many of the
spectators, generally men and boys, move their feet; but here again
habit probably comes into play, for it is very doubtful whether
women would thus act.[109]Reflex actions—Reflex actions, in the
strict sense of the term, are due to the excitement of a peripheral
nerve, which transmits its influence to certain nerve-cells, and
these in their turn excite certain muscles or glands into action;
and all this may take place without any sensation or consciousness
on our part, though often thus accompanied. As many reflex actions
are highly expressive, the subject must here be noticed at some
little length. We shall also see that some of them graduate into,
and can hardly be distinguished from actions which have arisen
through habit? Coughing and sneezing are familiar instances of
reflex actions. With infants the first act of respiration is often
a sneeze, although this requires the co-ordinated movement of
numerous muscles. Respiration is partly voluntary, but mainly
reflex, and is performed in the most natural and best manner
without the interference of the will. A vast number of complex
movements are reflex. As good an instance as can be given is the
often-quoted one of a decapitated frog, which cannot of course
feel, and cannot consciously perform, any movement. Yet if a drop
of acid be placed on the lower surface of the thigh of a frog in
this state, it will rub off the drop with the upper surface of the
foot of the same leg. If this foot be cut off, it cannot thus act.
"After some fruitless efforts, therefore, it gives up trying in
that way, seems restless, as though, says Pfluger, it was seeking
some other way, and at last it makes use of the foot of the other
leg and succeeds in rubbing off the acid. Notably we have here not
merely contractions of muscles, but combined and harmonized
contractions in due sequence for a special purpose. These are
actions that have all the appearance of being guided by
intelligence and instigated by will in an animal, the recognized
organ of whose intelligence and will has been removed."[110]We see the difference between reflex and voluntary movements
in very young children not being able to perform, as I am informed
by Sir Henry Holland, certain acts somewhat analogous to those of
sneezing and coughing, namely, in their not being able to blow
their noses (i. e. to compress the nose and blow violently through
the passage), and in their not being able to clear their throats of
phlegm. They have to learn to perform these acts, yet they are
performed by us, when a little older, almost as easily as reflex
actions. Sneezing and coughing, however, can be controlled by the
will only partially or not at all; whilst the clearing the throat
and blowing the nose are completely under our command.When we are conscious of the presence of an irritating
particle in our nostrils or windpipe—that is, when the same sensory
nerve-cells are excited, as in the case of sneezing and coughing—we
can voluntarily expel the particle by forcibly driving air through
these passages; but we cannot do this with nearly the same force,
rapidity, and precision, as by a reflex action. In this latter case
the sensory nerve-cells apparently excite the motor nerve-cells
without any waste of power by first communicating with the cerebral
hemispheres—the seat of our consciousness and volition. In all
cases there seems to exist a profound antagonism between the same
movements, as directed by the will and by a reflex stimulant, in
the force with which they are performed and in the facility with
which they are excited. As Claude Bernard asserts, "L'influence du
cerveau tend donc a entraver les mouvements reflexes, a limiter
leur force et leur etendue."[111]The conscious wish to perform a reflex action sometimes stops
or interrupts its performance, though the proper sensory nerves may
be stimulated. For instance, many years ago I laid a small wager
with a dozen young men that they would not sneeze if they took
snuff, although they all declared that they invariably did so;
accordingly they all took a pinch, but from wishing much to
succeed, not one sneezed, though their eyes watered, and all,
without exception, had to pay me the wager. Sir H. Holland
remarks[112]that attention
paid to the act of swallowing interferes with the proper movements;
from which it probably follows, at least in part, that some persons
find it so difficult to swallow a pill.Another familiar instance of a reflex action is the
involuntary closing of the eyelids when the surface of the eye is
touched. A similar winking movement is caused when a blow is
directed towards the face; but this is an habitual and not a
strictly reflex action, as the stimulus is conveyed through the
mind and not by the excitement of a peripheral nerve. The whole
body and head are generally at the same time drawn suddenly
backwards. These latter movements, however, can be prevented, if
the danger does not appear to the imagination imminent; but our
reason telling us that there is no danger does not suffice. I may
mention a trifling fact, illustrating this point, and which at the
time amused me. I put my face close to the thick glass-plate in
front of a puff-adder in the Zoological Gardens, with the firm
determination of not starting back if the snake struck at me; but,
as soon as the blow was struck, my resolution went for nothing, and
I jumped a yard or two backwards with astonishing rapidity. My will
and reason were powerless against the imagination of a danger which
had never been experienced.The violence of a start seems to depend partly on the
vividness of the imagination, and partly on the condition, either
habitual or temporary, of the nervous system. He who will attend to
the starting of his horse, when tired and fresh, will perceive how
perfect is the gradation from a mere glance at some unexpected
object, with a momentary doubt whether it is dangerous, to a jump
so rapid and violent, that the animal probably could not
voluntarily whirl round in so rapid a manner. The nervous system of
a fresh and highly-fed horse sends its order to the motory system
so quickly, that no time is allowed for him to consider whether or
not the danger is real. After one violent start, when he is excited
and the blood flows freely through his brain, he is very apt to
start again; and so it is, as I have noticed, with young
infants.A start from a sudden noise, when the stimulus is conveyed
through the auditory nerves, is always accompanied in grown-up
persons by the winking of the eyelids.[113]I observed,
however, that though my infants started at sudden sounds, when
under a fortnight old, they certainly did not always wink their
eyes, and I believe never did so. The start of an older infant
apparently represents a vague catching hold of something to prevent
falling. I shook a pasteboard box close before the eyes of one of
my infants, when 114 days old, and it did not in the least wink;
but when I put a few comfits into the box, holding it in the same
position as before, and rattled them, the child blinked its eyes
violently every time, and started a little. It was obviously
impossible that a carefully-guarded infant could have learnt by
experience that a rattling sound near its eyes indicated danger to
them. But such experience will have been slowly gained at a later
age during a long series of generations; and from what we know of
inheritance, there is nothing improbable in the transmission of a
habit to the offspring at an earlier age than that at which it was
first acquired by the parents.From the foregoing remarks it seems probable that some
actions, which were at first performed consciously, have become
through habit and association converted into reflex actions, and
are now so firmly fixed and inherited, that they are performed,
even when not of the least use,[114]as often as the
same causes arise, which originally excited them in us through the
volition. In such cases the sensory nerve-cells excite the motor
cells, without first communicating with those cells on which our
consciousness and volition depend. It is probable that sneezing and
coughing were originally acquired by the habit of expelling, as
violently as possible, any irritating particle from the sensitive
air-passages. As far as time is concerned, there has been more than
enough for these habits to have become innate or converted into
reflex actions; for they are common to most or all of the higher
quadrupeds, and must therefore have been first acquired at a very
remote period. Why the act of clearing the throat is not a reflex
action, and has to be learnt by our children, I cannot pretend to
say; but we can see why blowing the nose on a handkerchief has to
be learnt.It is scarcely credible that the movements of a headless
frog, when it wipes off a drop of acid or other object from its
thigh, and which movements are so well coordinated for a special
purpose, were not at first performed voluntarily, being afterwards
rendered easy through long-continued habit so as at last to be
performed unconsciously, or independently of the cerebral
hemispheres.So again it appears probable that starting was originally
acquired by the habit of jumping away as quickly as possible from
danger, whenever any of our senses gave us warning. Starting, as we
have seen, is accompanied by the blinking of the eyelids so as to
protect the eyes, the most tender and sensitive organs of the body;
and it is, I believe, always accompanied by a sudden and forcible
inspiration, which is the natural preparation for any violent
effort. But when a man or horse starts, his heart beats wildly
against his ribs, and here it may be truly said we have an organ
which has never been under the control of the will, partaking in
the general reflex movements of the body. To this point, however, I
shall return in a future chapter.The contraction of the iris, when the retina is stimulated by
a bright light, is another instance of a movement, which it appears
cannot possibly have been at first voluntarily performed and then
fixed by habit; for the iris is not known to be under the conscious
control of the will in any animal. In such cases some explanation,
quite distinct from habit, will have to be discovered. The
radiation of nerve-force from strongly-excited nerve-cells to other
connected cells, as in the case of a bright light on the retina
causing a sneeze, may perhaps aid us in understanding how some
reflex actions originated. A radiation of nerve-force of this kind,
if it caused a movement tending to lessen the primary irritation,
as in the case of the contraction of the iris preventing too much
light from falling on the retina, might afterwards have been taken
advantage of and modified for this special purpose.It further deserves notice that reflex actions are in all
probability liable to slight variations, as are all corporeal
structures and instincts; and any variations which were beneficial
and of sufficient importance, would tend to be preserved and
inherited. Thus reflex actions, when once gained for one purpose,
might afterwards be modified independently of the will or habit, so
as to serve for some distinct purpose. Such cases would be parallel
with those which, as we have every reason to believe, have occurred
with many instincts; for although some instincts have been
developed simply through long-continued and inherited habit, other
highly complex ones have been developed through the preservation of
variations of pre-existing instincts—that is, through natural
selection.I have discussed at some little length, though as I am well
aware, in a very imperfect manner, the acquirement of reflex
actions, because they are often brought into play in connection
with movements expressive of our emotions; and it was necessary to
show that at least some of them might have been Erst acquired
through the will in order to satisfy a desire, or to relieve a
disagreeable sensation.Associated habitual movements in the lower
animals.—I have already given in the case of Man
several instances of movements associated with various states of
the mind or body, which are now purposeless, but which were
originally of use, and are still of use under certain
circumstances. As this subject is very important for us, I will
here give a considerable number of analogous facts, with reference
to animals; although many of them are of a very trifling nature. My
object is to show that certain movements were originally performed
for a definite end, and that, under nearly the same circumstances,
they are still pertinaciously performed through habit when not of
the least use. That the tendency in most of the following cases is
inherited, we may infer from such actions being performed in the
same manner by all the individuals, young and old, of he same
species. We shall also see that they are excited by the most
diversified, often circuitous, and sometimes mistaken
associations.Dogs, when they wish to go to sleep on a carpet or other hard
surface, generally turn round and round and scratch the ground with
their fore-paws in a senseless manner, as if they intended to
trample down the grass and scoop out a hollow, as no doubt their
wild parents did, when they lived on open grassy plains or in the
woods. Jackals, fennecs, and other allied animals in the Zoological
Gardens, treat their straw in this manner; but it is a rather odd
circumstance that the keepers, after observing for some months,
have never seen the wolves thus behave. A semi-idiotic dog—and an
animal in this condition would be particularly liable to follow a
senseless habit—was observed by a friend to turn completely round
on a carpet thirteen times before going to sleep.