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- Herausgeber: The O'Brien Press
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013
A fascinating investigation the lives of four priest hunters – Sean na Sagart, Edward Tyrrell, Barry Lowe and John Garzia. Ireland in the aftermath of Cromwell – during this period Catholicism and Irish nationalism became inexorably linked and priests were outlawed. The Priest Hunters shines a light on these men who hunted them. Sean naSagart was Irishman who was been condemned to death for horse stealing but was reprieved on condition he become a priest hunter. Edward Tyrrell was an English mercenary driven solely by greed. Barry Lowe indulged in such acts as tying a priest behind his horse and dragging him through the brush. John Garzia, who had fled the Spanish Inquisition, arrived in Ireland and evidently sought revenge hunting down priests. An incredible account of some of the most hated men in Ireland.
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Reviews
‘The author’s command of language is impressive and his storytelling masterful.’
Frank McGuinness
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‘A hugely ambitious debut novel, Murphy astutely backs up his narrative with minute research and well-drawn characters. Some of the famine scenes he conjures are unforgettably harrowing, and he has produced an engaging labour of love novel that deserves a wide readership.’
Dermot Bolger, Irish Independent
‘Boycott has all the marks of a mature novelist and one with many more novels to come. There is a great sense of urgency that motivates the book, which is perfectly paced and beautifully written. Its achievement is impressive.’
Frank McGuinness
‘A stirring and deeply researched story, it is a rattling yarn, with action racing along, brilliant twists, flawed heroes and evil villains. Boycott is a powerful story, and I look forward to the next novel from this muscular writer.’
Books Ireland
‘Beautifully written. A skilful blend of fact and fiction.’
Sue Leonard, Irish Examiner
Praise for The Most Famous Irish People You’ve Never Heard Of
‘A reminder of all that is good and great about our fine little island.’
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‘A fascinating read.’
Sunday World
DEDICATION
To my father, John.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the staff at The O’Brien Press for their help in producing this book, particularly the publisher, Michael O’Brien; my editor, Helen Carr; designer, Emma Byrne, for the book layout and design and Tanya Ross for the front cover design.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
In the aftermath the Cromwellian Invasion of Ireland (1649-53) and half a century later, the Battle of the Boyne, Catholicism became increasingly linked to politics and political alliances and Catholics – Irish Catholics in particular – came to be viewed by the English monarchy in much the same way as they would view any other foreign enemy power. To counter this threat they introduced a series of repressive Penal Laws designed to essentially ‘Protestantise’ Ireland. The huge undertaking this presented put the authorities in Ireland under intense pressure to rid the country of Catholic clergymen – they simply didn’t have the resources to control the overwhelmingly Catholic population. To assist them in their task, a new statute was issued in 1709 granting rewards of twenty pounds for any person apprehending a priest, or fifty pounds for the capture of a bishop – extremely large sums of money at the time. Within months a new breed of men had emerged from the shadows.
The age of the priest hunter had dawned.
Note: The use of the term [sic], denoting that spelling and grammatical errors are not in transcription but are reproduced from the original material, has been avoided due to the overwhelming number of errors in the original eighteenth century documentation and because certain words have evolved with different spelling in the intervening centuries, e.g. ‘severall’. Other words such as ‘sheweth’ meaning ‘shows that’ or ‘tells us that …’ have disappeared from modern usage. A full listing of the sources from which all of this material was derived is presented at the back of the book
Eager for blood money, with some Orange magistrate or landlord whose creed was hatred of papists as their master, accompanied by bands of soldiers, the priest-hounds hunted God’s ministers night and day. A race of men whose love of money and hatred of Christianity peculiarly fitted them for the work, were employed to chase priests out of their hiding places, and drag them from their lurking holes. These agents of persecution assumed the garb of priests and went through the ceremonies of the Catholic religion. They thus wormed themselves into the confidence of the unwary, from whom they learned the names and haunts of concealed priests. Thus the clergy were tracked to their most secret retreats, and dragged sometimes from the very altar, robed in their sacred vestments, before tribunals, which sentenced them to perpetual banishment. Thomas de Burgo, Hibernia Dominicana, 1762
Part One
A HISTORYOF VIOLENCE
THE SPOILS OF WAR
The dead almost outnumbered the living.
Those who lived did not breathe free air, but survived on the margins of existence, disenfranchised, poverty-stricken and robbed even of the right to seek solace from the God of their choosing. This was the situation in which the vast majority of Irish men and women found themselves in the immediate aftermath of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, when much of the land was seized and granted as rewards to the invading generals and their troops, who were awarded large allotments in lieu of wages. Protestant settlers who had been in Ireland before the war also took advantage of the it to increase their holdings. As a result of these events, the ownership of land by Irish Catholics plummeted from sixty per cent to less than ten per cent in just over a decade, and what they did own was mostly the infertile, mountainous land of Connaught. It is this time that provides the cradle of the later society that would condone and encourage the generous rewarding of men who hunted down clergy like animals. It is here that the genesis of the age of the priest hunters can be found.
During the Irish rebellion of 1641 the Catholic rebels massacred about four thousand Protestant settlers in Ulster, with double that number perishing through exposure after being evicted from their homes and lands. But truth, it is often said, is the first casualty of war and by the time word of the massacre reached London popular pamphlets had exaggerated the figure to two hundred thousand. Revenge for this atrocity provided a principal motivation for Cromwell’s invasion eight years later and his infamous massacres of the inhabitants of Wexford and Drogheda, women and children included. Cromwell left Ireland after just nine months, passing the baton of conquest to his generals and his son, Henry, and the four years of subsequent warfare were said to have claimed over six hundred thousand lives through battle and the disease that tended to accompany conflict in those times. It is likely that this number is also an exaggeration, but nonetheless, Ireland’s population was reduced by anything from a quarter to three-quarters in just a few short years. One could travel for days on end without encountering a soul and those you might meet would most likely be reduced to starvation or possibly even cannibalism. As historian John P. Prendergast, writing in 1870 described it:
… the plague and famine had swept away whole counties, that a man might travel twenty or thirty miles andnot see a living creature. Man, beast, and bird were all dead, or had quit those desolate places. The troopers would tell stories of the place where they saw a smoke, it was so rare to see either smoke by day, or fire or candle by night. They were seen to pluck stinking carrion out of a ditch, black and rotten; and were said to have even taken corpses out of the grave to eat. A party of horse, hunting for Tories on a dark night, discovered a light; drawing near, they found it a ruined cabin, and, besetting it round, some alighted and peeped in at the window. There they saw a great fire of wood, and sitting round about it a company of miserable old women and children, and betwixt them and the fire a dead corpse lay broiling, which as the fire roasted, they cut off collops and ate.
Printed Declaration of the Council, 12th of May 1658.
The other factor that played a key role in decimating the population was the slave trade. Early in the conquest, in the immediate aftermath of the massacre at Drogheda, Cromwell himself said,
I do not think thirty of their whole number escaped with their lives. Those that did are in safe custody in the Barbados.
Britain had been involved in the lucrative trading of slaves for almost a century and Cromwell and his generals recognised the opportunity to reward his foot soldiers by granting them free rein to seize and sell the people of Ireland into bondage. In the eyes of the English Parliament the Irish Catholic peasant was reduced to the level of a mere commodity, no more worthy of rights than a cow or a sheep. Here was an early precursor of the trade in clergymen that would follow in later decades as bands of soldiers roamed Ireland year after year in search of easy profit. They fell upon entire communities during the night, tearing families from their beds of straw and spiriting them away – men, women and children bound for the slave ships and life as chattels in the emerging colonies of the Caribbean. The practice of arbitrarily seizing Irish peasants, particularly the young, continued throughout the war and for a decade after, and was often accompanied by the burning of whole villages, the murder of the older men and raping of the women. In response to a request by Admiral Penn of Jamaica, Henry Cromwell had a thousand ‘Irish wenches’ rounded up for sale as slaves and suggested that between fifteen hundred and two thousand Irish boys of twelve to fourteen years of age could also be supplied with ease. Such had been the success of his round-ups that he found himself in essence ‘over-stocked’ and commented in his reply to the Admiral:
We could well spare them and they might be of use to you. Who knows, but it might be a means to make them Englishmen.
Because of the nature of these ‘slave hunts’, no detailed records have survived, or were even kept, of the number of peasants seized, but estimates put the figure at anything between one hundred and three hundred thousand people sold into slavery. Besides enriching his men, it also cleared the land of its inhabitants and left much of it ripe for further plantation by Cromwell’s officers.
By the time Cromwell and his forces had wrested control of Ireland from the Irish Catholic Confederation, who had governed most of Ireland since the 1641 rebellion, the population had been utterly devastated by war, disease and famine. And in the decade after the war, things didn’t get much easier, as a new series of laws designed to generally disenfranchise Catholics would further oppress the ravaged population. Some sense of how brutally these laws were enforced may be gleaned from the fact that seventeen of the Catholic martyrs beatified in 1992 were from this period.
What’s more, even those Catholic landowners who had played no part in the fighting had their lands confiscated and were granted the infamous option of ‘To hell or to Connaught’ – in other words they could re-settle in the largely infertile province of Connaught (and Clare) or else they would be executed. This was largely a means of confining any remaining Irish resistance within the boundaries of the Atlantic Ocean and the River Shannon.
This period saw the first phase of serious repression of the Catholic religion. The practice of Catholicism was criminalised and gangs of soldiers roamed the countryside in search of illicit masses often held in remote areas atop ‘Mass Rocks’. (See Panel). Those found participating in these ceremonies were often butchered or sold into slavery. Catholics were also banished from Ireland’s towns as a means of further reducing them to penury. An inscription on Bandon gates, in County Cork, famously declared:
Jew, Turk, or atheist
May enter here, but not a papist.
Typifying the defiance of the now hunted Irish Catholic clergy, a local priest by the name of O’Leary reputedly added:
Who wrote these lines, he wrote them well,
For the same are writ on the gates of hell.
A MASS OF MASS ROCKS
Mass rocks were in use for over a century in Ireland, serving principally as makeshift altars, but also on occasion as a screen behind which the priest would conceal himself to hide his identity. They were usually large boulders, roughly the size of a car, with a flattish top into which a cross was often carved. Despite the fact that they were usually located in remote areas far from the prying eyes of the authorities such as mountainsides or in dense woodland, many mass rocks were the scene of terrible atrocities, particularly in the aftermath of the Cromwellian invasion. Their fellow Irish often betrayed the locations of the illegal masses for a reward, and on some occasions men, women and children alike were brutally massacred by the troops. There are literally thousands of mass rocks throughout Ireland, some of which were located in remote countryside at the time, but are now enveloped in a city, such as that at Shantalla in Galway, now called ‘Emancipation Rock’ as, appropriately, Daniel O’Connell gave an oration there in the nineteenth century. His subsequent efforts would forever consign the need for the mass rock to history.
It is important to note that the wave of anti-Catholicism that swept over Ireland (and England) during this time was not purely sectarian in nature. Although many Protestants, particularly in Cromwell’s time, did view Catholics as heretics, since Henry VIII’s Act of Supremacy (1534) and Elizabeth I’s Oath of Supremacy (1559) had made the English sovereign the head of the Church of England, Catholics were considered to be allied to the Church of Rome, which was viewed as a foreign power. So the repression of Catholics was, in many ways, no different to the repression of a people on the basis of their nationality. Not only were Catholics viewed as heretical, but also as potential usurpers of the state. What’s more, events such as the Gunpowder Plot half a century before, when a group of Catholics tried to blow up the House of Lords, and the so-called Popish Plot in 1678, which was a fake conspiracy to assassinate King Charles II devised by a Catholic-hating charlatan called Titus Oates, had fuelled an atmosphere of anti-Catholic hysteria throughout England.
Writing in 1914, the Reverend William P. Burke described the situation at the time:
… if the outlook of these statesmen be duly considered and the circumstances of the time taken into account the task to which they set themselves will not seem so extravagant nor the means so inadequate. In our day religion and politics are regarded as two spheres hardly touching, in fact almost mutually exclusive; the axiom a free church in a free state is in practice almost universally acted on. But [then] the secularist ideal was still unknown; religion was believed to be a matter of vital politics; people were as convinced of the necessity of a state church as of a state police and could no more conceive a nation without an established religion than a man without a blood circulation. And further if there was one principle more than another settled and acknowledged by statesmen it was that all Catholics were rebels in posse if not actually, that loyalty to Rome was alike incompatible with civil allegiance and with individual liberty, and that therefore the first duty of a Protestant government to the Catholic religion was to uproot it.
Reverend Burke’s comment about ‘religion and politics are two spheres hardly touching’ was written at a time when Ireland was still part of Britain and so was essentially true. He was not to know that in the future Irish state, politics and religion would become entwined with the complexity of a double helix of DNA, yet his observation on the mindset of the politicians of the time is accurate. Ironically it would be the oppression of Catholicism during that bleak age that would forge the initial bond between religion and government. During the seventeenth century Ireland was overwhelmingly Catholic and one of the consequences of their persecution by England was that nationalism, more so than in any other country in Europe, became inextricably entwined with Catholicism in ways that nowadays one would more associate with the linking of Islam to the national identity of Arab states.
The practice of one’s religion became also a statement of rebellion against an oppressor and the hunted priests and bishops became symbols of resistance, heroes to the beleaguered masses who would literally risk life and limb to protect them.
THE MERRIE MONARCH
Oliver Cromwell – possibly Ireland’s greatest figure of hatred – went to his heavenly (or hellish) reward in September 1658, leading to a restoration of the monarchy in England and the reign of Charles II. There could be no greater contrast between the two men: one a puritanical, intolerant oppressor, the other a colourful, complaisant, even hedonistic, ruler. The rule of Charles II would also see a respite in the reign of terror being inflicted on Ireland’s and Britain’s Catholics. But in historical terms it would be but a brief calm before another gathering storm.
Charles II rescinded a lot of the anti-Catholic legislation that had marked the previous years and personally favoured religious tolerance. This may have been partly due to his having promised his ally Louis XIV of France to convert to Catholicism at some point in the future. Ultimately his conversion would not take place until he was lying on his deathbed, but during his twenty-five year reign he was in frequent conflict with the English Parliamentas he tried to introduce greater religious freedom not just for Catholics, but for Protestant dissenters and Presbyterians, another of the religious groups persecuted under Cromwell.
Charles’ tolerance may equally have been motivated by his somewhat licentious attitude to life and his blithe nature – he was known as the ‘Merrie Monarch’ and he devoted as much time to courting his mistresses as he did to matters of state. Although married, his philandering was public knowledge and he is known to have bedded at least seven mistresses who bore him twelve illegitimate children. The fact that his wife was childless and illegitimate offspring could not succeed to the throne was ultimately to have a profound effect on Ireland’s future.
Interestingly, one of Charles’ mistresses, Louise de Kérouaille, a Catholic, was an ancestress of Diana, Princess of Wales, Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall and Sarah, Duchess of York. Another was Nell Gwyn, an illiterate actress and a Protestant who is the ancestress of Samantha Cameron, the wife of the British Prime Minister, David Cameron. A comment attributed to Nell dramatises the ill will and distrust felt towards Catholicism at the time. Once, when travelling through Oxford the crowd mistook her for Louise and began yelling insults at her. Nell nonchalantly leaned out the coach window and called out ‘Pray good people be civil, I am the Protestant whore.’
In Ireland the hunting down of priests or simply of people in the act of practising their faith had been relaxed. Many of the land-owning Protestant Irish were equally relieved at the easing of tensions. The peasant Irish now farmed their land, cooked their meals and tended to their horses and having them routinely butchered didn’t make Protestant lives any easier, besides which, a great number of them found the whole practice immoral. Although the incident below comes from some twenty years later, it serves to illustrate the tolerant attitudes some Protestants felt towards the oppressed. It concerns the pursuit of an aged Catholic priest called Rev. Phelim O’Hamill, of County Antrim, and the Protestant magistrate, Mr McCartney, who accepted his surrender:
… [O’Hamill] hath this day surrendered himself to me. I have put him into our town gaol, and desire you would communicate this account to their Excellencies, the Lords Justices, where I intend to keep him till I know their further pleasure. But I must state that the behaviour of Phelim O’Hamill had been so exemplary since the revolution, and he hath, during the disturbances, shown such kindness to Protestants, protecting their property from injury, that the leading Protestants of the country now come forward to offer bail and to solicit his release.
Yet a grim cloud would soon blot out the brief glimpse Catholics had been given of a brighter world or instances of harmony such as described above.
As Charles’ bed-hopping days drew to an end, it became apparent to the English establishment that despite his famed libido, he had failed to provide a Protestant heir to the throne. Several events during Charles’ reign had also contributed to growing anti-Catholic fervour. In 1666 the Great Fire of London had destroyed much of the city, the tragedy being quickly and wrongly blamed on Popish conspirators. Because it had destroyed the livelihoods and homes of so many ordinary people it lasted long in the memory, the imagined Catholic arsonists never being forgiven. In 1676, it emerged that the presumptive heir, Charles’ brother James, had converted to Catholicism. Then in 1685, the year of Charles’ death, Louis XIV expelled the Huguenots from France causing a ripple of Protestant foreboding to spread across Europe.
Charles and James had a stroke of luck in more ways than one in 1683 when circumstances forced them to change their travelling plans, which saved them from an assassination attempt known as the Rye House Plot. The anti-Catholic conspirators were either executed or forced to flee abroad, several of them escaping to the sanctuary of Holland and the sympathetic court of William III, or William of Orange as he is more commonly known. Yet the attempt on the royals’ lives had the effect of swinging public favour behind them and when Charles died, James succeeded to the throne with great public celebration.
His reign would be short-lived.
GREEN, WHITE AND ORANGE
As a young man, James had spent much time in the Spanish royal court; it was here that he became on friendly terms with two Irishmen, Peter and Richard Talbot. Peter was the Catholic Archbishop of Dublin and Richard had survived Cromwell’s massacre at Drogheda, and the pair undoubtedly influenced James’ later decision to convert to Catholicism, which he was forced to keep secret for seven years.
Lechery seemed to run in the family, as James, like Charles, had an eye for the ladies and was reputed to have openly ogled the wives of other members of the court. The diarist Samuel Pepys recorded that James ‘did eye my wife mightily’ and the monarch is known to have indulged himself with a number of mistresses. While still single, James seduced Anne Hyde resulting in a pregnancy and decided to marry her. She would be pregnant a total of eight times in her lifetime, but only two daughters would survive, Mary and Anne; their uncle, Charles, who was King at the time of their birth, insisted for political reasons that they be raised as Protestants. Both women would play a subsequent and influential role in the forthcoming renewed suppression of Catholicism in Ireland.
When Mary was fifteen, in an attempt to assuage fears about his own religious leanings, her uncle, King Charles, arranged her marriage to William of Orange; her father, James, gave his consent only reluctantly. (James’ own first wife having died some years beforehand, he also decided to take a fifteen-year-old bride. The fact that she was a Catholic Italian princess, Mary of Modena, didn’t help to ease fears about a creeping papal influence.)
But if the Protestant establishment was worried then, James’ brief three-year reign struck terror into their hearts. In 1687 he introduced the Declaration of Indulgence, which sought to suspend all the earlier penal laws introduced by the likes of Elizabeth I and Cromwell. He granted all Christian denominations the right to practise their faith, which made the Anglican Church fearful it would lose its position at the centre of British political power. James also began a process of granting Catholics positions of high office and also officially received the Papal Nuncio at court, an act that was viewed by many as tantamount to treason.
The following letter from Bishop John Brennan of Waterford and Lismore makes clear reference to Irish Catholics’ delight at James’ accession and also his placing of Catholics into positions the priest hunters of importance. It also contains a reference to his belief that the dark penal days are at an end.
To the Sacred Congregation of the Propagation of the Faith,
At last this fierce and long tempest of persecution came to an end and the Divine Goodness is pleased to console His afflicted ones by placing on the royal throne our most pious King James who publicly professes the Catholic and Apostolic Faith and practises Christian virtue in a rare manner. Soon after his coronation he deputed as Viceroy of this Kingdom his Lordship the Count of Tyrconnell, a native of the country and brother of the Archbishop of Dublin, Talbot of blessed memory. He is a sincere and zealous Catholic much inclined to promote the glory of God and the splendour of the holy faith and to advance the Catholic Lords and nobility of the Kingdom in position and in fortune.
Bishop John Brennan, November 1687
Bishop Brennan’s optimism would be sadly misplaced.
Conscious that his manoeuvrings were causing alarm James took the very unusual step of going on a speaking tour around England in an attempt to allay his enemies’ fears. In one speech made in Chester, he actually demonstrated a level of religious tolerance that was in many ways ahead of its time.
Suppose there should be a law made that all black men should be imprisoned, it would be unreasonable and we had as little reason to quarrel with other men for being of different [religious] opinions as for being of different complexions.
But it was all to no avail. When his wife bore him a son and potential Catholic heir in the summer of 1688, it was to prove the birth of a new era in British politics as the Protestant establishment now recognised the possibility of a Popish dynasty.
This proved a Catholic too far for a great number of prominent English politicians and Protestant churchmen. They petitioned William of Orange to come to their help and restore the Protestant faith to the heart of Britain’s power structures – in essence to de-throne James. William was only too happy to comply and in November of that year he invaded England. Unfortunately James had upset too many Protestants in his own ranks and several of his most senior generals deserted him and offered their services to William. Then his own daughter, Anne, who like her sister Mary (William’s wife) had been raised a Protestant, did likewise. James realised his throne was crumbling beneath him and tried to flee to France. He was first captured but then released by William, keen not to make a martyr of the king, and his old ally Louis XIV granted him sanctuary.
James was deemed to have effectively abdicated and his daughter Mary was declared the rightful heir. William would serve alongside his wife; he as King and she as Queen. This would be England’s only co-regency in history. Among the first of their acts was to pass a law that forbade a Catholic ascending the English throne or a monarch to marry a Catholic, a law that persists to this day, and a pointer to a rough road ahead for Ireland’s Catholics.
SEAMUS AN CHACA
Two years after James’ flight to France he attempted to regain the throne by confronting a Williamite army at the Battle of the Boyne. Despite the addition of six thousand French soldiers (see panel) to his ranks, supplied by Louis of France, his Jacobite forces still found themselves greatly outnumbered. (The term ‘Jacobite’ comes from the Latin for ‘James’, ‘Jacobus’). To make matters worse, many of his foot soldiers were untrained Irish peasants whose only weapons were farm implements. Although commemorated by the Orange Order on 12 July 1690, the battle actually took place on 1 July, the discrepancy due to the later adoption of the Gregorian calendar. It was a day that saw James’ army routed and was, at the time, headline news across Europe, particularly as it was viewed as finally curtailing France’s ever-expanding influence across the continent, and because of the alliance of the Protestant William with Catholic Rome.
In the aftermath James made a hasty retreat south to Wexford and boarded a ship for France. His abandonment of his Irish forces earned him the eternal sobriquet ‘Seamus an chaca’, literally ‘James the shit’.
RELIGION AND THE BATTLE OF THE BOYNE
Although it has always been widely propagandised as a great Protestant victory over Catholics, it was anything but. One of William’s key allies was Pope Alexander VIII (Papacy: 1689-1692) whose enemy, the Catholic James II, had the support of France’s Louis XIV who in turn was in conflict with the Pope and with Catholic Spain. William’s elite infantry troops, called the Dutch Blue Guards, charged into battle that day carrying a papal banner, and many of those troops were Dutch Catholics. On James’ side, many of the French regiments were composed of German Protestants and James also had the support of a small number of English and Scottish Protestants who believed in the monarchy above religion and felt James had been illegally dethroned. In reality the battle was about political control in Europe and both Protestants and Catholics fought on both sides.
