The Religion of The Chinese E-Book

Jan Jakob Maria de Groot

• Herausgeber: E-BOOKARAMA
• Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Beschreibung

In "The Religion of The Chinese", scholarly book published in 1910, Jan Jakob Maria de Groot details the history, rituals, and beliefs of the major traditional religions of China:  universal animism, polydemonism, specters, ancestral worship, Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. He thought that one spiritual essence could be detected beneath a great variety of religious, philosophical, and even political expressions in China, and his lifework was the discovery and exposition of that essence.  

"The Religion of The Chinese" was written while China was still under its imperial system of government with an emperor at its head, prior to the revolutions which established a republic and later a communist system that eschewed any state religion.  Currently, China is officially an atheist country.  However, at present China's religions are "Daoist (Taoist), Buddhist, Christian 3%-4%, Muslim 1%-2%". Hence, although this book was written more than 100 years ago, it is still relevant to modern China's culture and traditions.
 

Leseprobe

Jan Jakob Maria de Groot

The Religion of The Chinese

Table of contents

THE RELIGION OF THE CHINESE

Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION

Chapter 2 - UNIVERSAL ANIMISM. POLYDEMONISM

Chapter 3 - THE STRUGGLE AGAINST SPECTERS

Chapter 4 - ANCESTRAL WORSHIP

Chapter 5 - CONFUCIANISM

Chapter 6 - TAOISM

Chapter 7 - BUDDHISM - I.

Chapter 8 - BUDDHISM - II.

THE RELIGION OF THE CHINESE

Jan Jakob Maria de Groot

Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION

Is China's religion a world-religion, and as such worth studying?

A place as a world-religion must, without hesitation, be assigned to it on account of the vast number of its adherents. It has extended the circle of its influence far beyond the boundaries of the empire proper, and has gained access, together with Chinese culture generally, into Korea, Japan, Manchuria, and Turkestan, as well as into Indo-China, though, of course, in modified forms. Hence a proper understanding of the religions of East Asia in general requires in the first place an understanding of the religion of China.

China's religion proper, that is to say, apart from Buddhism, which is of foreign introduction, is a spontaneous product, spontaneously developed in the course of time.

Its origin is lost in the night of ages. But there is no reason to doubt, that it is the first religion the Chinese race ever had. Theories advanced by some scientists that its origin may be looked for in Chaldean or Bactrian countries must as yet be rejected as having no solid foundation. It has had its patriarchs and apostles, whose writings, or the writings about whom, hold a pre-eminent position; but it has had no founders comparable with Buddha or Mohammed. It has had a spontaneous birth on China's soil.

Since its birth, it has developed itself under the influence of the strongest conservatism. Its primeval forms were never, as far as is historically known, swept away by any other religion, or by tidal waves of religious movement and revolution. Buddhism eradicated nothing; the religion of the Crescent is only at the beginning of its work; that of the Cross has hardly passed the threshold of China. In order to understand its actual state, we have to distinguish sharply between its native, and its exotic or Buddhist element. It is the native element which will occupy us first and principally.

Chapter 2 - UNIVERSAL ANIMISM. POLYDEMONISM

THE primeval form of the religion of the Chinese, and its very core to this day, is Animism. It is then the same element which is also found to be the root, the central nerve, of many primeval religions, the same even which eminent thinkers of our time, as Herbert Spencer, have put in the foreground of their systems as the beginning of all human religion of whatever kind.

In China it is based on an implicit belief in the animation of the universe, and of every being or thing which exists in it. The oldest and holiest books of the empire teach that the universe consists of two souls or breaths, called Yang and Yin, the Yang representing light, warmth, productivity, and life, also the heavens from which all these good things emanate; and the Yin being associated with darkness, cold, death, and the earth. The Yang is subdivided into an indefinite number of good souls or spirits, called shen, the Yin into partides or evil spirits, called kwei, specters; it is these shen and kwei which animate every being and every thing. It is they also which constitute the soul of man. His shen, also called hwun, immaterial, ethereal, like heaven itself from which it emanates, constitutes his intellect and the finer parts of his character, his virtues, while his kwei, or poh, is thought to represent his less refined qualities, his passions, vices, they being borrowed from material earth. Birth consists in an infusion of these souls; death in their departure, the shen returning to the Yang or heaven, the kwei to the Yin or earth.

Thus man is an intrinsic part of the universe, a microcosmos, born from the macrocosmos spontaneously. But why should man alone be endowed by the universe with a dual soul? Every animal, every plant, even every object which we are wont to call a dead object, has received from the universe the souls which constitute its life, and which may confer blessing on man or may harm him. A shen in fact, being a part of the Yang or the beatific half of the universe, is generally considered to be a good spirit or god; a kwei, however, belonging to the Yin or other half, is, as a rule, a spirit of evil, we should say a devil, specter, demon. There is no good in nature but that which comes from the shen or gods; no evil but that which the kwei cause or inflict.

With these dogmata before us, we may now say that the main base of the Chinese system of religion is a Universalistic Animism. The universe being in all its parts crowded with shen and kwei, that system is, moreover, thoroughly Polytheistic and Polydemonistic. The gods are such shen as animate heaven, sun, moon, the stars, wind, rain, clouds, thunder, fire, the earth, seas, mountains, rivers, rocks, stones, animals, plants, things—in particular also the souls of deceased men. And as to the demon world, nowhere under heaven is it so populous as in China. Kwei swarm everywhere, in numbers inestimable. It is an axiom which constantly comes out in conversing with the people, that they haunt every frequented and lonely spot, and that no place exists where man is safe from them. Public roads are haunted by them everywhere, especially during the night, when the power of the Yin part of the universe, to which specters belong, is strongest. Numerous, in fact, are the tales of wretches who, having been accosted by such natural foes of man, were found dead by the roadside, without the slightest wound or injury being visible: their souls had simply been snatched out of them. Many victims of such encounters could find their way home, but merely to die miserably shortly after. Others, hit by devilish arrows, were visited with boils or tumors, which carried them off, or they died without even any such visible marks of the shots. And how many wayfarers have fallen in with whole gangs of demons, with whom they engaged in pitched battles ? They might stand their ground most heroically, and ultimately worst their assailants; yet, hardly at home, they succumbed to disease and death.

Ghosts of improperly buried dead, haunting dwellings with injurious effect, and not laid until re-buried decently, are the subject of many tales. Especially singular, but very common, it is, to read of hosts of specters setting whole towns and countries in commotion, and utterly demoralizing the people. Armies of spectral soldiers, foot and horse, are heard moving through the sky, especially at night, kidnaping children, smiting people with disease and death, playing tricks of all sorts, even obscenities, compelling men to defend themselves with noise of gongs, drums and kettles, with bows, swords and spears, and with flaming torches and fires. They steal the pigtails of inoffensive people, cutting these off, actually in broad daylight, even from very respectable gentlemen and high nobles, preferably while enjoying some public theatrical performance in a square or bazar, or when visiting a shop, or even in their own houses, in spite of securely barred doors. To some the idea occurs that the miscreants may be men, bad characters, bent on deriving advantage somehow from the prevailing excitement. Thus tumults arise, and the safety of unoffending people is placed in actual peril. Unless it be admitted by general consent that the mischief is done exclusively by invisible malignant specters, the officials interfere, and, to reassure the populace and still the tempest of emotion, imprison persons upon whom suspicion falls, preferably sending out their policemen and soldiers among members of secret religious sects, severely persecuted by the government as heretics because enemies of the old and orthodox social order, as evil-intentioned outlaws, the corroding canker of humanity. In most cases, their judicial examinations corroborate their pre-conceived suspicion, for they admirably understand the art of extorting, by scourge and torture, even from the most obdurate temperaments, any confessions, but especially such as they beforehand have assumed to be true. Flagellation, banishment to Turkestan, strangulation with a rope, and similar things, inseparable from Chinese judicial methods, crown the work.

While such whirlwinds of public excitement blow, the most intelligent, as well as the most ignorant, go wild with excitement and fear. The absurdest stories are circulated and universally believed. Officials in such emotional disturbances concert measures, and throw oil into the fire. They issue proclamations, each directly calculated to increase the disturbance of the public mind. They exhort people to stay at home, close their doors, and look after their children. They prescribe medicines and charms, to be used internally or externally. They try to avert the specters by means of sacrifices, summoning them to go away; even emperors from the height of their thrones have posed with respect to specter-plagues and sent officers and ministers to the regions where they prevailed in order to offer sacrifices to them and, in the sovereign's august name, summon them to cease their terrible work. Such mental typhoons are seldom confined within narrow limits, but mostly spread over several provinces.

Where belief in specters and spectrophoby so thoroughly dominate thought and life, demon lore is bound to attain its highest development. Literature in China abounds with specter tales,—no stories in Chinese eyes, but undeniable truth. A very large number may be traced to books of the T'ang dynasty, belonging to the seventh, eighth or ninth century. Confucius divided the specters into three classes: those living in mountains and forests, in the water, and in the ground. The first class is the most dangerous. And, among them, the most notorious are specters with one eye on the top of their heads, which, merely by their presence, cause drought, and, as a consequence, destruction of crops, dearth, famine,—all which mean in China destruction of thousands, nay millions of lives. Such calamities have always harassed China like chronic plagues. Books, dating from the earliest times, mention their prevalence. Religious ceremonies to avert them and bring down rains have always formed an integral part of the official duties of princes, governors, and mandarins. The arrival of one pah —as these devils are called, even in classical works, suffices to call forth such a catastrophe. It may come with the quickness of wind. In order to defend yourself and your country against it, catch it and throw it into the dung-pit, or into the privy, and the drought will vanish: thus runs the sovereign recipe.

Water demons, too, are numerous, and of various sorts. Most of them are souls of drowned men, unable to release themselves from their watery grave unless they draw another human being into it. Accidents which befall those who cross a body of water are ascribed to those demons, lying in ambush for victims. They are a constant lurking danger to fishermen, boatmen, and washerwomen. They blow hats into the water, linen from the bleaching ropes; and while the owner exerts himself to recover his property, they treacherously keep the thing just beyond his reach, until he loses his equilibrium and tumbles into a watery grave. Should a corpse be found on the silt, its arms or legs worked deep into the mud, every one is sure to believe that it is a victim of a water ghost, drawn down by those limbs with irresistible force.

Cramps paralyzing a swimmer, are likewise the clutches of a water ghost. When a man is missed, and later found dead in the water, every one is ready to explain that a water ghost has decoyed him away from his house by some trick, and drowned him.

In the third place, we have the demons which inhabit the ground. They dwell also in objects firmly attached to the soil; in houses and heavy things. As the soil, if fecundated by the celestial sphere, is the productive part of the universe, which engenders all sorts of living things, disturbance of such earth spirits by digging in the ground or moving heavy objects, naturally, by the laws of sympathy and universalism, disturbs the repose and growth of the embryo in the womb of woman. Their baneful influence even affects babies already born, these as well as the vegetable kingdom being dependent for their growth on the life-producing earth. It is those spirits which cause convulsions; and everybody feels sure that, should a child fall into their clutches it would certainly forthwith turn black and blue. They are, of course, notorious for causing the pains of pregnancy, and even miscarriage.

The fear of such a result restrains a man from many imprudent acts, should his wife or concubine be pregnant. Especially perilous it is then to drive a nail into the wall, as it might nail down the earth specter which resides in it, and cause the child to be born with a limb stiff and useless, or blind of one eye; or it might paralyze the bowels of a child already born, and give it constipation with fatal result. The dangers which threaten a future mother increase as her pregnancy advances. In the end nothing may be displaced in the house; even the shifting of light objects becomes a source of danger. Instances are known of fathers who had rolled up their bedmats after they had long lain flat, being frightened by the birth of children with rolled-up ears. Once I saw a boy with a harelip, and was told by the father that his wife, when pregnant with this child, had thoughtlessly made a cut in an old coat of his, while mending it.

But nothing is so perilous as the commotion created among earth specters by repairs of houses, or by the application of labor to the soil. When at Amoy any one undertakes anything of the kind, the neighbors take good care to seek lodgings elsewhere for their women who are expecting confinement, not allowing them to return until the work is fairly advanced, and the disturbed spirits have had time to resettle in their old abodes. In default of a suitable place to shelter such a woman, public opinion obliges the builder to delay till after her confinement.

The natural history of the demon kingdom is not herewith exhausted. A very large contingent has been contributed to it, in all times and ages, by the animal kingdom. Animals have, in fact, the same natural constitution as men, being built up of the same Yang and Yin substances of which the universe itself consists; and while identification of specters with men prevails in demonism, the investment of animal specters with human attributes, and even human forms, has been the result. China has its were-wolves, but especially its tiger demons. The royal tiger is her most ferocious brute, the terror of its people, often throwing villages into general commotion and panic, and compelling country people to remove to safer spots. Folklore abounds with tales of man-tigers ravening as bloodthirsty demons; with tales of men accused of having raged as tigers, being delivered to the magistrates, and formally put to death by their orders; of wretches being chased by the people with lances and swords, or burned in their own houses. Wounds inflicted on a were-beast are believed to be visible on the corresponding part of its body when it reassumes human shape: a trait also of our own lycanthropy. As in other countries where royal tigers live, so in China exceptional specimens are known to prey preferably on men. But instead of ascribing this idiosyncrasy to their having experienced how easy a prey man generally is, or to their steady predilection for human flesh after having once tasted it, the Chinese aver that the man-eater is incited by the ghost of every last victim to a new murder. Thus fancy has created a class of injurious human specters in the service of the monster, or sometimes thought to inhabit it ; each such specter brings the beast on the track of a new human victim, desiring nothing better than to deliver itself from its bondage by thus getting a substitute.

There is hardly any species of animal in China about whose changes into men folk-lore has not stories to tell. Foxes and vixens especially, but also wolves, dogs, and snakes are notorious for thus insinuating themselves into human society for immoral purposes, disguised as charming, handsome lads and female beauties; and not seldom they devour them in the end, and at all events make them ill, delirious, insane. Reynard is also depicted as an enormous impostor, so enormous that there are instances of his having assumed the garb of religious holiness, nay, the shape of the Buddhas themselves, to insinuate himself into the favor of men, and even to obtain access to such awe-inspiring places as imperial palaces. Instances are even known of his descending on a cloud in a Bod-hisatwa's shape, to settle on an altar, and appropriate for years the sacrifices offered by men and women who flocked to worship his divinity.

Evil may be inflicted upon men by stags, by hares, monkeys, rats, otters, snakes, tortoises, toads, frogs, even by such tame domestic animals as cats, donkeys, goats, pigs and cows, assuming human forms, seducing men and women, bewitching their senses to the detriment of their health, haunting their dwellings, possessing the inmates and making them ill. Tales are even circulated about cocks, geese, crows and other birds, even fishes and insects, doing every sort of evil, especially after assuming human shape. Those endless changes of men into beasts and beasts into men, in order to play their tricks as devils, are the best illustrations of the influence exerted upon the Chinese mind by the system of universalism, teaching animation of all beings by the same Yang and Yin, who compose the Tao or order of the universe.