30-Second Twentieth Century E-Book

Jonathan T. Reynolds

• Herausgeber: Icon Books
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: 30-Second
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 153

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

You probably know, or think you know, quite a bit about what happened in the 20th century – chances are, if you're reading this, you lived through at least some of it – and you may have referenced the Cuban Missile Crisis, the double helix, or the Wall Street Crash in conversation. But even for people who were there, it was the fastest-moving hundred years in history, so refresh your memory with these pacey profiles on everything from Sputnik to Stonewall. Twentieth Century presents a unique approach to modern history, condensing 100 years of innovation and art, politics and conflict, triumph and disaster, into 50 graphic snapshots that offer an instant appreciation of the way the world revolves and evolves. Consider which events define a period of history and why. From the Red Army to Black Monday, from Woodstock to the World Wide Web, this is the fastest way to travel in time.

Leseprobe

30-SECOND

TWENTIETH

CENTURY

The 50 most significant ideas and events, each explained in half a minute

Editor

Jonathan T. Reynolds

Contributors

Grace Chee

Caryn Connelly

Candice Goucher

Cary D. Harlow

Kristin Hornsby

Laura J. Lee

Craig A. Lockard

Sara Patenaude

Jonathan T. Reynolds

Jeremy Rich

Timothy D. Sofranko

Kristopher Teters

Rita R. Thomas

Russell Zimmerman

You probably know, or think you know, quite a bit about what happened in the 20th century – chances are, if you’re reading this, you lived through at least some of it – and you may have referenced the Cuban Missile Crisis, the double helix, or the Wall Street Crash in conversation. But even for people who were there, it was the fastest-moving hundred years in history, so refresh your memory with these pacey profiles on everything from Sputnik to Stonewall.

30 Second Twentieth Century presents a unique approach to modern history, condensing 100 years of innovation and art, politics and conflict, triumph and disaster, into 50 graphic snapshots that offer an instant appreciation of the way the world revolves and evolves. Consider which events define a period of history and why. From the Red Army to Black Monday, from Woodstock to the World Wide.

CONTENTS

Introduction

Science & Technology

GLOSSARY

The Theory of Relativity

Splitting the Atom

The Green Revolution

Profile: Albert Einstein

Transistor

Sputnik

Global Broadcast of ‘All you Need is Love’

The World Wide Web

Arts & Entertainment

GLOSSARY

Les Demoiselles D’Avignon

The Rite of Spring

The Jazz Singer

Profile: Pablo Picasso

‘The Peanut Vendor’

Pong

Woodstock

Bollywood

War & Conflicts

GLOSSARY

The Boxer Rebellion

Japanese Defeat of Russia

The Battle of the Somme

Profile: Adolf Hitler

Hiroshima

The First Arab-Israeli War

Dien Bien Phu

Soviet Defeat in Afghanistan

Politics & Society

GLOSSARY

‘Kaiser Wilson’

The Long March

The Bandung Conference

Profile: Eva Perón

The Cuban Missile Crisis

‘I Have a Dream’

The Year of the Barricades

Stonewal

Argentina’s Dirty War

The End of Apartheid

Industry & Economics

GLOSSARY

The Model T Ford

Five Year Plans

The Wall Street Crash

‘Pile it High, Sell it Low’

Profile: John Maynard Keynes

The New Deal

The Volta Dam

The Arab Oil Embargo

Medicine & Health

GLOSSARY

Spanish Flu

Sloppy Petri Dish

Double Helix

The Pill

Profile: Rosalind Franklin

Eradication of Smallpox

HIV/AIDS

Events, Triumphs & Tragedies

GLOSSARY

Red Rubber Scandal in The Belgian Congo

The Spirit of St. Louis

The Holocaust

The Cultural Revolution

Death in Dallas

Profile: Patrice Lumumba

‘One Giant Leap’

The Fall of the Berlin Wall

Appendices

Resources

Notes on Contributors

Index

Acknowledgements

INTRODUCTION:

A CENTURY OF CONTRADICTIONS

Jonathan T. Reynolds

Perhaps no era in human history has seen such a transformation of the human condition as the 20th century. Those hundred years witnessed a host of breakthrough technologies in transportation (to the Moon and back!) and communication, from recording of sound on 78s to the speed of the Internet, and extraordinary advances in medicine and science, including the discovery of the structure of DNA – the very stuff of life. Socially and politically, the 20th century is also remembered for shifts towards gender and racial equality with its movements for women’s rights, civil rights, decolonization and the end of apartheid. As such, the century is often presented as predominantly positive – breaking down the barriers of time and space separating human communities and curing previously deadly or debilitating diseases. Indeed, it has often been heralded as a period of progress.

Both sides of the coin

However, the last century also had a dark side. While some technologies and social innovations could improve or extend human life, others were likely to result in the opposite. New, more deadly weapons, from poison gas to nuclear bombs, were joined with long-range delivery systems to expand radically a country’s ability to kill its enemy. All too often, politics and ideology seemed to outweigh humanity. Such developments blurred the line between soldiers and civilians as those out of uniform were targeted to brutal effect. Similarly, even as a growing concept of human rights sought to protect individual liberties, new political systems such as fascism sought to subvert the rights of the individual to those of the state – and to deny similar rights to others.

Metaphorically, one might think of the 20th century as a toolbox to which items were constantly being added, some of which could be used to help people, and others to cause harm. With ever-increasing globalization the 20th century finally triumphed over smallpox while experiencing rapidly spreading pandemics. It saw the development of powered flight, and the dropping of a nuclear weapon from an aircraft. From world wars to Woodstock, the last century expresses the human condition from every conceivable angle.

How the book works

In order to understand the complex legacy bequeathed to us by the 20th century, this book seeks to present those hundred tumultuous years through a few dozen carefully selected events, issues and personalities. Fifty 30-second histories, each written by a scholar from a relevant academic field, are divided into seven thematic categories in order to present the global breadth of the human experience. Each one is presented consistently, in just 300 words, delivered as: a single main paragraph that sets out the topic in detail; a ‘3-second Thrash’, summing up the event in one sentence; and a second, shorter paragraph, the ‘3-minute Thought’, offering further insight and broader context. Key terms are defined in a glossary within each section and each has a profile of an individual whose life and work embodied the issues and events included under the theme.

Man on the moon20th century progress allowed for humanity to begin exploring the world outside our atmosphere.

The first, Science & Technology, brings together some of the most remarkable discoveries and inventions that changed the way we live, from advances in agriculture to exploration of space. Section two, Arts & Entertainment, celebrates the cultural events that brightened our world through music, dance, paintings and play. Against the century’s backdrop of progress and enhancement were world wars, fights for freedom and ideological struggles. Those conflicts and sacrifices – global, national and personal – are recorded in the following two sections: War & Conflicts and Politics & Society. Individuals stand out for their dreams and ideas in the next section, Industry & Economics, from Kwame Nkrumah to Joseph Stalin to Henry Ford. The two final sections, Medicine & Health and Events, Triumphs & Disasters, record the best and worst of human endeavour, from the eradication of smallpox to the darkest period in living memory: the Holocaust. No doubt some of the subjects chosen will be familiar to you, but we hope that 30-Second Twentieth Century will surprise you with a few unfamiliar topics, personalities and perspectives as well.

We are all born into history. It is not unlike turning on a movie rather late into the story. Unless you learn what it is that you missed, the part you are watching is unlikely to make much sense at all. It is our profound wish that this volume not only enriches your understanding of the 2oth century, but also of the world in which we live today.

Jonathan T. Reynolds

Northern Kentucky University, 2014

Devastating consequencesHuman innovation was also responsible for some of the most traumatic events in the 20th century; the advancement in atomic energy resulted in the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

GLOSSARY

1991 Gore Bill Officially titled the High Performance Computing Act of 1991, this legislation was proposed by then Senator Al Gore. The initiative provided incentives for an expansion of Internet capacity and penetration, and also helped fund Mosaic, the first browser that allowed individuals to search and connect to other computer data on the Internet.

Advanced Research Projects Agency Established in 1958, ARPA was established to facilitate research into defensive technologies as part of the Cold War competition between the United States and Soviet Union. In 1972 the term Defense was added to the name (DARPA). Among the most significant developments were Arpanet (see here) and the satellite positioning system known as GPS.

ARPANET In response to the fear that a nuclear attack on the US would disable existing systems of communication, ARPA was tasked with developing a packet-based network of computers to facilitate high-speed and secure messages. The success of ARPANET helped lay the foundation for the Internet and the World Wide Web.

Geiger-Marsden Experiment Also known as the Rutherford gold foil experiments. These investigations into the nature of atomic structure took place from 1908 to 1913 at the University of Manchester. By examining how protons and neutrons impacted gold foil, researchers at the University of Manchester were able to establish that atoms were comprised of a nucleus composted of protons and neutrons and orbited by electrons.

The Manhattan Project In 1939, the United States launched a top-secret research programme to investigate the potential of atomic weapons. By 1942, in cooperation with the British and Canadians, the project was well under way. By 1945 the project had succeeded in producing the Trinity test bomb and the weapons used against Nagasaki and Hiroshima. In so doing, they launched the Atomic Age and set the stage for the Cold War.

Syncom 3 Launched in 1964, Syncom 3 was the first geostationary communications satellite. Stationed above the International Date Line over the Pacific Ocean, the satellite was used to provide coverage of the Tokyo Summer Olympics to North America.

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) This is the system adopted by ARPA in the 1960s to regulate how data was transmitted, received and confirmed within a computer network. The system was adopted by the US Department of Defense in 1982. In the 1990s, it would become the standard for regulating the flow of information in the Internet and World Wide Web.

THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY

the 30-second history

3-SECOND THRASH

The theory of relativity (1919) that made Albert Einstein the rock star of science leaped light years ahead to the field of quantum physics.

3-MINUTE THOUGHT

In 2010, scientists at CERN (the European Organization for Nuclear Research) conducted an experiment in which neutrinos (subatomic particles) appeared to be travelling faster than the speed of light. If this were true, then the age of the universe and the theories of modern physics were out the window. For once, scientists were hoping to be wrong – and they were. The rest of us were able to see scientific method at work. Einstein, who said, ‘the important thing is not to stop questioning’, might have been pleased.

RELATED TOPICS

SPLITTING THE ATOM

ALBERT EINSTEIN

HIROSHIMA

‘ONE GIANT LEAP‘

3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES

ISAAC NEWTON

1643–1727

English physicist, whose theory of gravity started the Scientific Revolution

ALBERT EINSTEIN

1879–1955

German physicist who won the Nobel Prize in 1921 for his explanation of the photoelectric effect

30-SECOND TEXT

Candice Goucher

Einstein theorized that because the Sun is so heavy, its gravity field should deflect light by a measurable amount.

SPLITTING THE ATOM

the 30-second history

Before Ernest Rutherford’s experiments in 1909, scientists could only speculate as to the shape of atoms, believed at the time to be the smallest particles on Earth. Rutherford was the first to prove that atoms consist of a tightly packed nucleus and orbiting electrons, ‘subatomic particles’. In 1917 Rutherford led another experiment to study nuclear transmutation, or the changing atoms of one element into atoms of another. He was able to change nitrogen atoms into oxygen – the first example of scientists causing a nuclear reaction, or ‘splitting the atom’. In 1932, expanding on Rutherford’s work, Ernest Walton and John Cockcroft split a lithium-7 nucleus into two. When German scientists attempted nuclear fission on heavier elements, including uranium, they discovered that the process of fission created huge bursts of energy. Subsequent experiments on nuclear chain reactions during the Second World War caught the eye of both United States and German government officials, who poured money into research on using nuclear fission to aid the war effort. America’s Manhattan Project completed the creation of the first atomic bombs in 1945. Peaceful generation of nuclear power began in 1954 with the Soviet Union Obninsk power station.

3-SECOND THRASH

Ernest Rutherford discovered that atomic nuclei were not a solid, unbreakable mass, but could be purposely split apart in a nuclear reaction.

3-MINUTE THOUGHT

The first atomic bombs (A-Bombs) worked through nuclear fission, or breaking apart the nucleus of atoms. Hydrogen bombs (H-Bombs) add on a process of nuclear fusion, forcing two or more nuclei to fuse together. H-bombs are thermonuclear weapons, which use the heat created by a nuclear fission bomb to ignite nuclear fusion, giving the bombs even more destructive power. Virtually all modern nuclear weapons use thermonuclear technology.

RELATED TOPICS

HIROSHIMA

THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES

ERNEST RUTHERFORD

1871–1937

British physicist, awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908

JOHN COCKCROFT

1897–1967

British physicist, awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1951 alongside Ernest Walton

ERNEST WALTON

1903–95

Irish physicist, awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1951 alongside John Cockcroft

30-SECOND TEXT

Sara Patenaude

Ernest Rutherford’s proof that the atom could be split into smaller parts paved the way for atomic bombs and nuclear power.

THE GREEN REVOLUTION

the 30-second history

Although the label ‘Green Revolution’ might bring to mind a sudden, radical change in environmental policies, it is a term originally coined in 1968 to describe the development of high-yield crops in impoverished countries. As world population grew at increasingly high rates (peaking at 2.2 per cent in 1963), the Rockefeller and Ford foundations funded research programmes in the 1940s aimed at increasing wheat production in Mexico. Through 20 years of specialized breeding, new strains were developed that were denser, matured more quickly, and allowed farmers to produce more crops per year than ever before. Other high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of major food crops, including rice, beans, maize and millet, have been developed and to this day research continues in an attempt to address food shortages in areas that have not yet enjoyed a positive impact from advanced agricultural technologies, notably sub-Saharan Africa. While the Green Revolution has contributed to lower food prices, higher incomes and improved nutrition in Asia and Latin America, critics argue that these advancements come with a price. Excessive fertilizer and pesticide use, heavy irrigation and overfarming may result, ultimately, in an even greater hunger crisis for struggling regions.

3-SECOND THRASH

For food supplies to keep pace with Earth’s burgeoning population, advanced farming techniques must be developed that adhere to the principle of non-maleficence (‘first, do no harm’).

3-MINUTE THOUGHT

The Green Revolution changed commercial crop production, effectively turning countries once synonymous with hunger into some of the world’s greatest food producers. However, global hunger remains, and access to resources and patented technologies is an issue for developing nations. Three-quarters of Africa’s land is severely depleted and, in response, farmers clear forests and savannas that support wildlife. We must be mindful to include the whole earth in our focus on sustainability.

RELATED TOPICS

SLOPPY PETRI DISH

ERADICATION OF SMALLPOX

3-SECOND BIOGRAPHIES

WILLIAM S. GAUD

1907–77

Former Administrator for the US Agency for International Development (USAID) who coined the term ‘Green Revolution’

NORMAN BORLAUG

1914–2009

American scientist who developed dwarf wheat varieties that transformed agriculture in Mexico, Pakistan and India: the ‘Father of the Green Revolution’

30-SECOND TEXT

Laura Lee

Population growth in the 1960s inspired an effort to boost efficiency of crop production in the developing world.

ALBERT EINSTEIN

Albert Einstein, named Time magazine’s ‘Person of the Century’ in 1999, was perhaps the most famous physicist and thinker of modern times. His wild, white hair and overgrown moustache make him instantly recognizable, and his name is synonymous with ‘genius’. Nobel Prize winner, researcher and lecturer, Einstein was also a champion of frequently unpopular causes, which ultimately led to an FBI file labelling him an ‘agitator’.

Einstein’s early life was spent in Munich. Contrary to popular belief, he performed quite well in school. He continued his education at the prestigious Federal Polytechnic School in Zürich, training to be a teacher of physics and mathematics. In time, he held professorships at the Polytechnic School, the University of Zürich, the German University of Prague and at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft in Berlin. From 1933 until his death in 1955, Einstein held a research position at Princeton University.

Einstein’s most famous writings are referred to as ‘the 1905 papers’, of which three are particularly notable. The first described electromagnetic radiation and postulated that light consisted not only of waves, but also of discrete particles called photons. Einstein theorized that a photon’s energy could be determined by multiplying its frequency by a constant. This work led to his award of a Nobel Prize in 1921. With his other two papers from 1905, one concerning the special theory of relativity and the other statistical mechanics, Einstein importantly contributed to the knowledge of quantum physics, electromagnetic radiation and gravitational acceleration.

With great fame comes conjecture, and it can be difficult to separate truth from myth. Did he really wear the same clothes every day? Was he sociable, or a recluse? One thing we do know is that Einstein wrote many letters when he travelled, and those letters (some 1,400 were released to the public in 2006), indicate quite a busy love life. While married to his second wife, Einstein’s letters describe a series of affairs. Whether his wife knew and gave permission for his trysts is up for speculation.