Belly Dance E-Book

Tina Hobin

• Herausgeber: Marion Boyars
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2003

Beschreibung

Tina Hobin - acknowledged expert and practitioner of belly dance, with many years experience of teaching and dancing throughout the world - introduces us to the history of this ancient and mystical dance in an accessible style, both enjoyable and easy to read. Tracing the evolution of belly dance from prehistoric fertility rites, the cult of the shaman and temple dances of Ancient Egypt, she explores how the music and motion of the belly dance featured in the rise and fall of entire empires. Looking also at modern belly dance and its growth across the Western world, Tina Hobin combines the history of dance with an explanation of the health benefits of dance, and a step-by-step guide to modern dance movements. Hobin also asks that we dismiss the commercial exploitation of dance, which is in danger of hiding the art behind this oldest of art forms.

Leseprobe

CONTENTS

Title Page

CHAPTER ONE The Origins of Dance

CHAPTER TWO The Sacred Dance

CHAPTER THREE Music and Instruments of Ancient Times

CHAPTER FOUR Gypsy Dances and Belly Dance

CHAPTER FIVE Belly Dance and the Harem

CHAPTER SIX Belly Dancing for Health and Life

CHAPTER SEVEN Dance Movements

Bibliography

Acknowledgements

Copyright

1

The Origins of Dance

‘In the beginning, Eurynome, the Goddess of All Things, rose naked from Chaos, but found nothing substantial for her feet to rest upon, and therefore divided the seas from the sky, dancing lonely upon its waves. She danced towards the south, and the wind set in motion behind her seemed nothing new and apart with which to begin a work of creation. Wheeling about, she caught hold of the north wind, rubbed it between her hands, and behold! the great serpent Ophion. Eurynome danced to warm herself, wildly and more wildly, until Ophion, grown lustful, coiled about those divine limbs and was moved to couple with her. So Eurynome was got with child. Next, she assumed the form of a dove, brooding on the waves, and, in due process of time, laid the Universal Egg. At her bidding, Ophion coiled several times about this egg until it hatched and split in two. Out tumbled all things that exist, her children: sun, moon, planets, stars, the earth with its mountains and rivers, its trees, herbs, and living creatures.’ (The Pelasgian Creation Myth, Greek Myths, Robert Graves, 1955.)

Throughout history, human beings have used dance to sustain their link with the cosmos and to communicate with their gods as they celebrated the life force and renewal of nature. Evidence tracing the earliest recognisable dance forms back as far as 13000 BCE is provided by the famous cave paintings of Chauvet in France, for example, which depict a sorcerer with arms raised and legs set apart, apparently dancing. Together with more recent depictions, such as the ‘Dance of the Goddess’ and ‘Young God Beside The Tree of Life’ from the Mycenaean Ring at the Tholos Tomb of Vapheio 1450 BCE, such evidence enables us to trace the evolution of fledgling dance forms (The Myth of The Goddess, Anne Baring and Jules Cashford, 1991). From such representations we can conceive of the basic rhythmic motion used by early practitioners to worship the gods and chart the development of these primitive dance forms into complex mystical, magical and religious cults involving a variety of ceremonies.

Early dance movements were imitative, achieved through the dancers’ awareness of their environment and through their observations of the birds and animals around them. By mimicking the characteristic movements of these indigenous species, such as their mating rituals, an imitative dance form was created that forged a rhythmic release of energy through which the dancers displayed an involuntary expression of emotions such as ecstasy and pleasure.

It is easy to visualise how imitative and mimetic dances were performed by our ancestors when basic movements such as leaping, jumping, lunging, squatting and circling are all familiar characteristics of animal behaviour. The uniquely human aspect, however, is that through imitative dance human beings found themselves able to express their joy, grief and physical desires in order to re-live the daily dramas of their lives. Subsequently, over time movements became more complex, varied and rhythmic, creating art forms that Curt Sachs described in his book, World History of the Dance (1937), as ‘the mother of all arts.’

The various representations of dancing figures found in cave paintings suggest that primitive dance forms played an extremely important role in the social life of our ancestors, who believed that spirits and demons surrounded them and were capable of doing great harm. Without the benefit of science, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and hurricanes, thunder and lightning, rain, floods and winds, the rising and setting of the sun, the waxing and waning of the moon and even the occurrence of night and day would have remained mysterious. To these ancient people the volatile nature of the cosmos and the natural world was both inexplicable and frightening.

In consequence, humans used magic rites and witchcraft to worship the gods, and, with the help of sorcerers, attempted to appease the angry or hostile gods they believed had caused the catastrophic natural changes they endured. They believed that the gods had inflicted terrible diseases on them, injuries, sickness and hardship that resulted in disability or death. Magicians or medicine men were revered almost universally in early societies as the healers of disease and the leaders of men. In fact, in certain societies where shamanism remains prominent today, in some Inuit and Siberian cultures for example, sorcerers continue to be regarded as the most powerful members of their community (The Myth of The Goddess, Anne Baring and Jules Cashford, 1991).

The first dances were an essential part of worship through which human beings felt they were able to establish their relationship with divinity and a unification of the earth with a higher, spiritual world. Through dance they manifested the ethereal sphere of gods, spirits and demons in a form of ritual worship from which it is said religion was born (Greek Myths, Robert Graves, 1955).

For our ancient ancestors, nothing equalled the power of dance as a form of ritual worship and magical representation. Dance was also a means of establishing divine intervention, to enable good to be distinguished from evil, and a means of protecting themselves from destructive influences. As the primary concern was the cycle of life, dances were performed ecstatically for all occasions. They celebrated birth, death, rebirth, planting and harvesting, as well as victory in war and a successful hunt. The sacred dance was also a way of evoking the animal soul of humanity, for it was considered vital to maintain a healthy relationship with the unseen powers of life believed to be embodied in the animals surrounding them (The Myth of The Goddess, Anne Baring and Jules Cashford, 1991). To this end our ancestors often wore the skins of the animals they had hunted, depending on which animal a ritual focused on. Dance was necessary for initiating the young on reaching puberty and for courtship rituals and fertility rites, which sometimes exploited the hormonal changes induced by lunar activity. C. Knight suggests in his book, Blood Relations (1991), it is possible that, ‘by using the moon as a clock and by dancing in time with it, palaeolithic women succeeded in keeping in synchrony with one another,’ thus regulating menstruation and ovulation. So early dance forms included rain dances, sun and moon worship and supplication to the gods. Dance enabled these humans to enhance the structure and quality of their lives and ritual ceremonies were linked with magical, religious and cultural beliefs.

There is evidence of circle dances and double-circle dances in which the women formed the outer circle and the men the inner circle. In depictions of Stone Age dances from the caves of Tuc D’Aubert and Montespau in South West France, for example, a clear imprint of feet forming a circle have been found. These dances were thought to represent the celestial motion of the moon and the sun and to protect a divine space from intrusion. Spiral dances represented death and rebirth, mimicking the journey of the dead by weaving along a winding path that represented the wandering of the soul.

Circle dances were followed by line dances in which men and women faced each other in rows and repetitively danced towards and then back from one another. In its more recent manifestations the circle dance has altered so that the dancers should not actually take the hand of their fellow dancers but instead link together by holding the corner of a handkerchief (The World’s People and How They Live, Odhams Press, 1946). This kind of dance is a tradition inherent to the Balkans for example (Jenni Conrad, for the Washington State Arts Commission, 2001) as well as being performed in countries such as Greece and Turkey.

The Cult of the Shaman

Like prehistoric dance, shamanic practice developed as a means of transcending earthly existence and gaining contact with the ‘unseen powers’ of the spirit world and its many rulers. The historian of religion Mircea Eliade writes, ‘It is impossible to imagine a period in which man did not have dreams and waking reveries and did not enter into a ‘trance’ – a loss of consciousness interpreted as the soul travelling into the beyond,’ (Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy, Mircea Eliade, 1972). Though the existence of palaeolithic shamans is not irrefutable, the virtually universal assumption that shamanism is associated with hunting supports the belief that it could well be the world’s oldest spiritual discipline and medical practice.

The shaman was a kind of sorcerer, a medicine man or man of knowledge, who performed ritual dances in order to gain wisdom of the ‘other world’ and employ its forces to benefit the inhabitants of this world. The word ‘shaman’ is thought to have derived from a term employed by the Evenk, a small Tungus-speaking group of hunters and reindeer herders in Siberia, meaning a priest with healing powers who could influence the spirits to bring about good and evil. Shamanism is not a single unified religion, however, but more a cross-cultural form of religious practice that manifests itself in many different forms.

The cult was widespread among the hunter cultures of Africa, in parts of North Western Australia, Northern Asia, among the Inuit and also the Lapps of Northern Scandinavia (Primitive Man, Andreas Lommel, 1966). Shamanism was also of vital importance to the Native Americans of the Pacific Coast, among the Indian tribes of the South East, and the North East Woodlands and to other North American tribes such as the Zuni, Hopi and Plains Tribes. Ethnologists and anthropologists, including Mircea Eliade, believe it is likely that shamanism has been practised worldwide for thousands of years and that it has remained remarkably consistent in technique despite varying cultural diversities. Today in many parts of the world, the arts of healing and trance are still practised by shamans. Eliade’s research, for example, draws many parallels between the palaeolithic shamanic rituals and those practised in modern day Siberia. As well as the ancient rituals beings preserved in contemporary shamanic practices of the Arctic, Borneo and Amazonian cultures, the spread of New Age culture has promoted shamanism across the globe. In New Age culture, the term retains the same reference point: a shaman is someone who is thought to be in contact with the spirits (The Shaman, Piers Vitebsky, 1995).

Although there were some female shamans, such as those of the Kung Bushman tribes of the Kalahari Desert in Botswana (Evolution of Shamanism, Gina Scott, for the International Conference on the Study of Shamanism, 2002), shamans were predominantly men. The shaman, who was also known as the witch doctor, was usually chosen because of his extra sensory powers and psychic predisposition (Shamanism Today, Turner 1972, from www.shamanism.today) although sometimes the role was inherited. As many shamans were believed capable of exerting immense transcendental power, either for good or for evil, they were generally feared in their communities. When ordered by members of the tribe to carry out certain functions, if successful, they would gain further prestige within the community.

A shaman would act primarily as a priest and physician, and his mission was to mediate between members of the tribal community and operate as their ancestors’ spokesman, controlling the elements, operating as a prophet and healing the sick by exorcising evil spirits who threatened their well being. It was often believed that illness was caused by evil spirits that entered the body of their own accord, or by the absence of a soul, which the shaman would pursue and charm back into the body by performing a divine service of magic incantation and ritual dance (The Shaman, Piers Vitebsky,1995).

In certain shamanic cultures, such as the San Tribe of South Africa, the sick were, and still are in some places, placed in the centre of a circle and danced around until the evil spirit was exorcised. This magic ritual can last for several hours. It was important for the shaman to acquire guardian spirits with whom he communicated and maintained contact through ecstatic dancing and incantations, during which he would enter a trance-like state and assume the form of an animal or spirit of the dead. In most shamanic practices, herbal remedies were also used to help cure the sick. These early methods of medical practice were essentially magical, an art of sorcery from which it is said the origins of the medical profession and priesthood were derived.

Dance was central to early shamanism. It was used to induce a trance-like state along with rhythmic chanting, hand clapping and various other techniques, including hyperventilating and the ingestion of hallucinatory drugs. During his altered state of consciousness, the shaman would enter into a trance within which he would hallucinate and his whole body tremble. Sometimes he would double over as if in excruciating pain and would have to be supported by other members of the tribe. In some cases, sickness and pain were considered to be a vital part of the basic shamanic experience. The Hungarian explorer Vilmos Diószegi collected many reports from Siberia of shamanic vocations being chosen for prospective shamans by the ‘black spirits’ that made them ill and forced them to take up shamanism to escape suffering (Dreamtime and Inner Space, Holger Kalweit, 1984).

Convulsive dances were prevalent in shamanic cultures and were dominated by the men of the tribe. They would dance ecstatically with tremendous energy, convulsively stamping their feet, hopping from one foot to the other and wildly jumping and leaping around in circles to rhythmic chants, hand claps and the beat of drums, rattles or tambourines. The shaman would invoke through dance the state of altered consciousness that enabled him to make contact with the spirit world. Shamanic technique may involve anything that disrupts everyday psychological processes to produce a new rhythmic pattern and dance is believed to aid this restructuring of our consciousness (Dreamtime and Inner Space, Holger Kalweit, 1984).

During their religious ceremonies, the aim of the chief dancers was therefore to lose complete control at the climax of the performance and enter into an altered state of mind. To prevent any of the dancers from harming themselves whilst in this state of uncontrollable frenzy, they were often tethered by four ropes held by assistants.

Dancing for the Hunt

Early humans depended on animals for their survival. They hunted animals such as bison, deer, zebra, horses, bears, mammoths and rhinoceroses for food, clothing, weapons and other artefacts. It has been supposed that animals were plentiful and easy game in ancient times but it is more than likely that hunters were not always successful in their pursuit. To ensure the successful outcome of hunting expeditions, it was considered essential for the shaman to identify with the animal he represented. By wearing an animal skin, a mask and by mimicking the animal’s ways he could reinforce and increase the power of magic over the animal’s soul. A shaman believed that in these magic hunting rituals he became the animal’s spirit, which he controlled through the ecstasy of the dance.

Scenes connected with magic rites relating to hunting cultures have been discovered in cave painting and rock engravings in the Lascaux Cave in South West France 15000 BCE which, with its extensive chambers and passageways, contains the most famous examples of colourful prehistoric rock art of large animals ever to be found from the Upper Palaeolithic Period.

In the entrance of a palaeolithic cave in the Dordogne in Laussel, France, our ancestors carved a nude image of the great mother, ‘Venus’ 22000-18000 BCE. Her pendulous breasts, bulging belly and pubic triangle are well defined, suggesting pregnancy. Her left hand points towards her large belly and the other hand holds a bison or lunar horn, painted in red ochre, which has been interpreted as the moon. There is dispute over the exact meaning of the notches carved on the horn but they are thought to relate to the thirteen days of the waxing moon and the thirteen months of the lunar year. The position of her body, which draws a curve between the waxing of the moon and the fecundity of the womb, suggests that the figurine was intended to highlight the relationship between the heavenly and earthly orders (The Myth of The Goddess, Anne Baring and Jules Cashford, 1991). Over time the figure of Venus also came to be associated with ‘myths of the mistress of the beasts’, a goddess with influence over animals who drives them towards the hunters during the chase.

Cave paintings at Altamira in Northern Spain dating from around 13000 BCE (Altamira, Deutches Museum, Munchen 2003) as well as in other regions of the world, illustrate what appears to be a shaman wearing antlers masquerading as an animal. The shaman dances ecstatically with arms raised, pictured together with numerous large animals such as rhinoceroses, bulls, bears, horses, zebras, deer and various hunting scenes. The ‘Animal-shaman’ at the renowned Trois Frères caves in Northern France 14000 BCE illustrates a sorcerer dancing above a group of wild beasts, and in the centre a shaman, dressed as a bison, dances holding a hunting bow (The Myth of The Goddess, Anne Baring and Jules Cashford, 1991).

Cybele, the Greek goddess Artemis, Hathor and Isis were often associated with domestic and wild animals, particularly those hunted, for as mistresses of animals they were responsible for the hunt (Secrets of the Stone Age, Richard Rudgely, 2000). The myth of the mother goddess is linked to familiar figures from the art of Old Europe, such as the goddess of the animals. One seal from the tomb of Thassos in Crete 15000 BCE depicts a goddess on a mountain top with lions and other followers engaged in worship.

Traces of the palaeolithic ‘Hunt Goddess,’ such as that depicted in the statuette Venus of Willendorf (24000-22000 BCE) have been discovered wherever ancient people existed and her magic associations with animals have been found throughout the world. The hunt goddess was a subsidiary of the mother goddess myth whose associations with weaponry may be considered to be in opposition with the nurturing role of the mother but who developed from this myth nonetheless. Some argue that the mother goddess myth may include the hunter but the hunter story cannot easily encompass the mother (On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands, Professor Patrick Kirch, 2000). In more recent times among the Kalahari Bushmen, as dawn rises on the day of the hunt, a female shaman performs a ritual dance through which she communicates with the spirits of the beasts. It is believed by the bushmen that the spirits indicate the animals are about to die of their own volition to feed the people of the tribe.

Although hunt dancers were not often women, images of sacred women standing with arms raised, together with some whose arms are supported by smaller male figures standing on either side of them, have been found in stone cave paintings. Among the examples of depictions of female hunt dancers are the Stone Age cliff paintings found by Mary Leaky in Central Tanzania, in which the hunt dancers are almost always women. During the hunt it was a function of the women to adopt this stance, with arms raised, acting as recipients of cosmic energy. A further example of a female hunt dance is provided by the Kalahari bushmen today, as a Kalahari shaman woman performs a special dance at dawn on the day of the hunt, invoking the protective Dawn Star (Venus) who is called the hunter, and communing with the spirits of the animals who will voluntarily die to feed humans. (The Great Cosmic Mother by Monica Sjoo and Barbara Mor, 1991.)

Sacrificial and Trance Dances

Mimetic and imitative forms of dance varied greatly in style, from the exhilarating frenzied movements of the shamanic or medicine dance to the acrobatic dance that so impressed and amused the Egyptians, and the more gentle movements of the rain dance. Nevertheless, gentle though the rain dances might have been, they may well have ended with a violent act. During the rain dances of the Pacific Islands and the West Indies, in which women danced naked, it was not uncommon for a young woman to be sacrificed ‘to the blood-thirsty God Oro,’ (On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands, Professor Patrick Kirch, 2000).

Although human sacrifice seems to us to be barbaric, such ancient sacrificial rites of humans are believed to have kept tribes together. The Aztecs, for example, are amongst those ancient civilisations who are supposed to have fed their gods with human hearts and blood (Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice, Gary Hogg, 1966).

The Macumba is a form of voodoo mainly practiced by Brazilians, developed from a religion of African origin. Macumba is an umbrella term used for the two principle forms of African spirit worship: Candomble and Umbanda. It originated from the shipping of black slaves to Brazil in the 1550s. Macumba rituals are usually held in isolated areas of the Amazon jungle and at night on the infamous Copacabana beach. The Copacabana festival is a combination of African religion and magical cults, the worship of pagan gods and catholic saints with whom they are associated. Yemanja, the African sea goddess who is also likened to the Virgin Mary and is the main focus of worship, was brought to Brazil by Yoruba slaves from the region of Africa now known as Nigeria. The worshippers mainly dress in white, a colour favoured by the goddess Yemanja, and they carry candles, which are set in pre-prepared holes, as well as gifts which are offered in honour of Yamanja to the sea. During the Macumba rituals worshippers become possessed by gods and demons in the hope of obtaining power to acquire authority, wealth and love, or the ability to reap terrible revenge upon their enemies (Marvels and Mysteries, Rituals and Magic, Parragon Press, 1997).

As the Macumba celebrations progress, the charged atmosphere and pulsating rhythms of the drums encourage participants to take part in frenzied, almost orgiastic dancing until entering a near hypnotic state. Towards the climax of the evening, as the high priest summons down the gods, one by one the dancers cease dancing and prostrate themselves.

‘The Ghost Dance’ is a dance of the Sioux and other American Indians (The Ghost-Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890, James Mooney, 1992). Here dancers move monotonously around and around in circles until every dancer has collapsed on to the ground in what appears to be a seizure. In the late 19th century ‘The Ghost Dance’ was performed by the Sioux in a desperate bid to rid their land of hostile white invaders. North Mexican tribes took part in dances on altars, also whirling around until similarly delirious and frothing at the mouth, destroying the altars in their uncontrollable madness, before falling unconscious.

In Bali, young men have traditionally taken part in a religious dance called the Kris, based on the idealistic thought of the Rwa Bhineda doctrine (Bali Music and Dance, www.kecak.com, 2003). Kris always took place at night by torchlight and was conceived as a frenzied hypnotic dance of good and evil, in which the dancers frequently inflicted terrible wounds upon themselves (The World’s People and How They Live, Odhams Press, 1946). As a result, dancers were often prevented from using real weaponry to avoid harming other participants. The dance is named after the traditional sword used in Barong plays and tells the story of Balinese men who used the Kris to battle with Rangda, the demon queen. Rangda, however, put the men into a trance-like state of unconsciousness. When they came to, they were so distressed by their failure to overcome her that they tried to impale themselves on their swords, the Kris. Fortunately for them, their trance states would prevent them from being injured.

The Earth Mother and Ancient Cultures

It is believed that belly dance may be one of the oldest dance forms and that it developed from the fertility dances of the mother goddess cult. Its origins are closely linked to fertility and childbirth rituals which, through time, because of the influence of many different countries and cultures, evolved in many different forms.

From the earliest cultures of the Palaeolithic Era (around 50000-10000 BCE) to the Neolithic Era (which is a phrase used to combine the New Stone Age of around 10000 – 5500 BCE with the Copper Age of 5500-3500 BCE) there is evidence that various forms of sacred dance and ritual fertility dances linked to the earth mother goddess evolved.

For example, there is evidence from pre-dynastic graves in Egypt of a widespread cult of the mother goddess, Neith or Nit, who was usually shown wearing her emblem shield crossed with two arrows, linking her to the hunt goddess myth, weaponry and warfare. On occasion, though this is extremely rare, Neith and other such female figurines represented the goddess as a cow, and many such figurines are considered to have been votive offerings to beg for fertility or rebirth in the after life. In his book, The Inner Reaches of Outer Space: Metaphor as Myth and as Religion (1986), Joseph Campbell points out that woman, ‘as the mother of life and nourisher of life was thought to assist the earth symbolically in its productivity,’ and is depicted as such in neolithic pottery (. Because in giving birth the woman’s body performs an act of creation it is linked to the mysteries of nature’s evolution and the creation of the earth.

In early societies, it was thought that women possessed magical powers. It was believed that their fertility and that of the earth on which they toiled created food for everyone. Though it was unusual for women to take part in animal, magic or hunting dances, they were usually the only participants in fertility rituals which consisted of birth dances, the consecration of young women, mourning rituals, sun and moon worship, rain and harvest dances.

To our ancestors, as the earth mother was the nourisher and preserver of the universe, she represented nature, productiveness and childbirth and became a symbol of life, death and rebirth, celebrated through sacred dance, music and singing. To ancient civilisation, goddesses manifested themselves in everything around them: in the waters, wind, mountains, trees and vegetation, and in the sky, sun, moon and stars. They were also associated with animals, both wild and domestic, particularly birds and snakes whose shapes they could adopt.

In ancient times, breasts were sacred and treated with great reverence. Fertility statuettes of goddesses cupping their breasts in their hands symbolically flowing with milk, and of a mother suckling a child at her breast, were a reminder to our ancient ancestors of the goddesses’ ability to nurture, provide sustenance and maintain the balance of life. According to the Greeks, the original shape of a bowl was formed from the breasts of Helen of Troy (Goddess Mother of Living Nature, Adele Getty, 1990). The females of the Zuni tribe in North America still make pottery in the shape of breasts.

Based on numerous sacred images and fertility figures discovered deriving from the Neolithic Period, it is thought that magic rites and fertility cults became prominent. In early civilisations the sacred nuptial union of a king and queen represented the deities and ensured the fertility of the land. These great occasions were celebrated with pomp and ceremony, lavish feasts, dancing and singing.

There are many examples of fertility dances that were practised, in particular the phallic dances performed by the Altia Turks and tribes in Corbeau, North Western Brazil. These dancers, who were usually women, had large phalluses made of bast, a wood fibre, and testicles made of red cones picked from the trees which they held close to their bodies with both hands. Dancing one behind the other while leaning forward and stamping their right foot in double quick time, they would suddenly leap wildly along with ferocious coitus movements while groaning loudly, provoking their female partners who would playfully disperse, laughing and shrieking.

Shrines and countless images of goddess figures in their many forms and with a multitude of names have been discovered in almost every culture around the world. How this cult spread so far and wide is not clear. The abundance of these sacred images testifies to the obsession with fertility, religious imagination and the veneration of life and worship of the great earth mother among ancient civilisations.

Ritual Dances of the Pygmy

Pygmies are renowned for taking a great delight in dancing. Their ecstatic war, rain and animal dances, which have survived for thousands of years, include a great variety of movements, each varying in style from tribe to tribe and region to region. Only the female pygmies of Central Africa and Australia teach their children to dance from an early age as part of their tribal culture.

The African Pygmies were particularly skilled at dancing. From as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, the Egyptians recognised their tremendous artistic talents, in particular their acrobatic skills, and brought them to Egypt to entertain, service their gods and dance in religious processions. Anyone who actually presented a dancing pygmy to a king as a gift was held in the highest esteem.

During the reign of Neferkare, 5th King of the 6th Dynasty who lived from 2246 BCE to 2152 BCE, a caravan master named Harkhuf, who was also a learned priest, made many expeditions into Lower Nubia, Southern Egypt. On one of them he found and brought back a trained dancing pygmy from the Sudan and on his return wrote immediately to the court informing the new boy pharaoh of the pygmy. The pharaoh promptly dictated a letter to Harkhuf, asking him to bring the pygmy to the palace of Memphis at once. The royal letter written by the pharaoh is said to be one of the most remarkable documents remaining from the ancient world. Harkhuf was so touched by the letter he had it inscribed on the façade of one particular tomb so that everyone could read in future the following:

‘I have noted the contents of your letter which you sent to me, the King, at the palace, in order that I might know that you returned in safety from Yam with the troops that were with you. You have said in your letter that you have brought numerous rich beautiful gifts, which the goddess Hathor, Lady of Imu (said to be part of Yam), has granted to me, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Neferkare, who lives forever and ever. You have also said in your letter that you have brought me back from the Land of Ghosts [unknown regions south of Egypt] a pygmy of [the kind employed therein] that dances for [their] god, like the pygmy which the keeper of the Sacred Treasure, Burded brought back from Punt in the time of King Isesi. You have said to your majesty: Never before has one like him been brought by any other who has reached Yam,’ (Ancient Records of Egypt, James Henry Breasted, 1906).

There are other historical accounts that include references to pygmy tribes. Curt Sachs, in World History of the Dance, (1937), describes the rolling of the pelvis and movements of the rectus abdomini practised by the pygmies of Uganda as being especially significant. The dance emphasised the abdomen as the seat of all sexual and child bearing activity. The original aim of the magical coital movements was to promote life and growth.