Introducing Psychology E-Book

Nigel Benson

• Herausgeber: Icon Books
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: Graphic Guides
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 125

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

What is psychology?When did it begin? Where did it come from? How does psychology compare with related subjects such as psychiatry and psychotherapy? To what extent is it scientific? Introducing Psychology answers all these questions and more, explaining what the subject has been in the past and what it is now. The main "schools" of thought and the sections within psychology are described, including Introspection, Biopsychology, Psychoanalysis, Behaviourism, Comparative (Animal) Psychology, Cognitive Approaches (including the Gestalt movement), Social Psychology, Developmental Psychology and Humanism. The key figures covered include: Freud, Pavlov, Skinner, Bandura, Piaget, Bowlby, Maslow and Rogers, as well as many lesser-known but important psychologists.

Leseprobe

Published by Icon Books Ltd, Omnibus Business Centre, 39–41 North Road, London N7 9DP email: [email protected]

ISBN: 978-184831-756-7

Text and illustrations copyright © 1998 Nigel C. Benson

The author and artist have asserted their moral rights.

Originating editor: Richard Appignanesi

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, or by any means, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

What is Psychology?

Towards a Definition

What Does Psychology Include?

The Sections Within Psychology

Psychology and Psychiatry?

Is Psychology a Science?

Methodology

Research Methods: 1 Experiment

2 Observation

3 Survey

4 Case Study (or Case History)

5 Correlation

Correlation Scale and Significance

Other Methodological Issues

Philosophical Methodology

Karl Popper

The Process of Science

Why Can’t Anything Be Proved?

Nothing is Certain…

Probability in Psychology

The Birth of Psychology

Evaluation of Wundt

Before Psychology

Descartes’ Mind-Body Problem

Associationism

Transcendentalism

Utilitarianism

Comte’s Positivism

Early Brain Research Techniques

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

Natural Selection

The Importance of Evolution

Evolution Today

Galton’s Contributions

The Normal Distribution

Correlations

Structuralism and Functionalism

The First Functionalists

The Perspectives

1. The Psychodynamic Perspective

1. Conscious / Pre-Conscious / Unconscious Mind

2. The Libido

3. The Id, Ego and Superego

4. The Stages of Psychosexual Development

5. The Defence Mechanisms

Freud’s Evidence

2. The Perspective of Behaviourism

Learning Theory – Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s Famous Experiment

Further Experiments

Behaviour Therapy

Sexual Deviancy

Thorndike and Connectionism

Learning Curves and Laws

Watson’s Behaviourism

Watson’s Experiment

So did Watson then cure Albert?

Peter and the rabbit

Skinner’s Behaviourism

Operant Conditioning

Partial Reinforcement Schedules

Why Punishment is Often Ineffective

What is “Reward and Punishment"?

Definitions ~ Putting it Into Practice

“Problem Children”

The 3-Stage Training Method

Behaviour Modification

Skinner’s Contribution to Education

Social Learning Theory

The Bobo Doll Experiments

Bandura’s Results

“Modelling”

3. The Cognitive Perspective

Gestalt Psychology

The Active Mind

The Gestaltists

Koffka and Köhler

Insight Learning Theory (or “Cognitive Learning”)

Gestalt Principles of Perception

Applications of Gestalt

Field Theory

The Cognitive Movement

4. The Humanistic Perspective

The Philosophy of Humanistic Psychology

Maslow

The Hierarchy of Needs

Application of The Hierarchy

Rogers

Rogerian Therapy

The Self Concept

5. The Bio-Psychological Perspective

The Geography of the Brain

“Split Brain” Experiments

Brain Research

Other Brain Research Techniques

The Nervous System

The Endocrine System

Genetics

6. The Social and Cultural Perspective

What Is Culture?

Cultural Analysis

Ethnocentrism

Cross-Cultural Research

Developmental Psychology

Bowlby

“For Bowlby”

Evaluation of Bowlby

Social Psychology

Attitudes

Group Behaviour

Comparative Psychology

Animal Societies

Communication

Aggression

Individual Differences

Psychopathology

Intelligence

IQ Controversies

Personality

Psychology Today

Ethics of Human Research

Ethics of Animal Research

Brief Guide to Further Issues and Applications

Acknowledgments

Bibliography, References and Further Reading

Index

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

“Psychology” comes from two words: psyche and logos. The word psyche (pronounced “sigh-key”) is from the Greek word Ψυχη – meaning “breath of life”, i.e. “soul or spirit”, loosely translated as MIND.

And logos means “knowledge”, “study”: like all “ologies”! In Greek mythology, Psyche was represented by a butterfly. She became the wife of Eros, the god of love (renamed Cupid by the Romans).

The Greek letter Ψ (spelled “psi”, and pronounced “sigh”) is now used as the international symbol for Psychology.

Hence, Psychology was originally defined as: the study of the mind.

But, this isn’t how most Psychologists define Psychology today.

Towards a Definition

Most Psychologists try hard to make a clear distinction between what is proper Psychology, and what isn’t.

So, how do Psychologists define “Psychology”? Well, there are difficulties in finding one universally accepted definition. Although most Psychologists agree that it is important to be scientific – to avoid muddled thinking – it’s not always clear exactly what this means.

Another difficulty is the practical problem – some say “impossibility”! – of studying the “mind” directly. Indeed, even trying to define “mind” is very difficult. Some Psychologists have avoided this completely, especially the Behaviourists, like B. F. Skinner and J. B. Watson.

“We do not need to try to discover what personalities, states of mind, feelings… really are in order to get on with a scientific analysis of behaviour.” “Never use the terms consciousness, mental states, mind…”

In practice, therefore, most Psychologists concentrate on what is observable and measurable in a person’s behaviour, including the biological processes in the body. At the same time, despite the extreme views of certain Behaviourists, the “mind” is still generally considered to be central to the subject.

Thus, a commonly accepted “working definition” is:

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour of humans and animals.

Doesn’t that definition also apply to Sociology? It is similar, but Sociology is generally about the study of large groups of people – in societies or sub-cultures.

Psychology, on the other hand, is mainly about individuals or small groups of people, as in Social Psychology.

There are also differences in the methods used. In Psychology, there is emphasis on experiments, but in Sociology that method is not usually possible – for practical and ethical reasons – so observations and surveys are more commonly used.

What Does Psychology Include?

Unlike the Natural Sciences, Psychology doesn’t have one unifying theory or particular approach…

We’re working on a Unified Field. We have Molecular Bonding. We have Common Descent. We don’t have any particular approach. We have several perspectives…

We shall look at the 6 main approaches or perspectives within Psychology:

PSYCHODYNAMIC; BEHAVIOURISM; COGNITIVE (including Gestalt); HUMANISTIC; BIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL; SOCIAL-CULTURAL

The Sections Within Psychology

In addition to the different perspectives, the subject can be divided into various areas of study in university departments. A typical division would look like this:

(whispering…) Excuse me, where is the Psychodynamic Department, please? Down in the basement… use the rear entrance.

To qualify as a Psychologist requires a recognized qualification at degree level (e.g. BSc Hons) and membership of a relevant Professional Association, for example one of the following: the BPS – British Psychological Society (founded 1901), the APA – American Psychological Association (founded 1893), the APS – American Psychological Society (founded 1988).

Psychology and Psychiatry?

There is a common confusion between the two. Put simply, the difference is this:

A Psychologist studies all human behavior – normal and abnormal. A Psychiatrist is a DOCTOR who specializes in abnormal behavior – “mental disorders”.

Psychiatrists have a Medical Degree, plus a Psychiatric Qualification, and belong to a Medical Association. (Only they have the authority to prescribe drugs.) But some Psychologists also specialize, with extra training, in helping people with mental disorders – they are Clinical Psychologists.

To qualify as a Clinical Psychologist requires a good Psychology Degree (at least a 2.1) plus relevant work experience (e.g. nursing, social or care work) and a recognized Clinical qualification (e.g. a BPS approved Diploma or Masters Degree).

Some Clinical Psychologists base their therapies, like traditional Psychiatrists, on Psychoanalysis (e.g. the Tavistock Clinic), while others use Behaviour Therapy and Modification (e.g. the Maudsley Clinic). (These therapies are described later.)

Is Psychology a Science?

Since the definition includes “scientific study”, this begs the question: “What is Science?”. To most people, “science” conjures up images of laboratories with test-tubes, complex measuring equipment, etc. This is appropriate because it emphasizes the importance of EXPERIMENTS, which can only be properly carried out in controlled conditions.

Experiments are conducted to try to find the CAUSES of EFFECTS, in all scientific subjects.

Psychologists also like to carry out experiments. How/ever, sometimes this can’t be done for practical and ethical reasons. In general, Psychologists can’t research on human beings in the same way that, for example, a Chemist researches chemicals.

So, Psychologists have to use various research METHODS other than just experiments.

METHODOLOGY

The study of methods of research is called “methodology”. There are two aspects to this: (a) the more PRACTICAL considerations about which research methods should be used, and (b) the more PHILOSOPHICAL questions about the nature of SCIENCE itself. Let’s start with practical methodology.

In practice, there are 5 methods of research that a Psychologist can choose from. The last one may be seen as more a form of measurement rather than a method.

Within each method, various TECHNIQUES can be used, e.g. audio and/or video recording, questionnaires, interviews, tests, measurements, etc.

Research Methods: 1 Experiment

The first Social Psychology experiment was by Triplett (1898) who tested the hypothesis (prediction) that boys would wind fishing reels more quickly in pairs than alone.

As predicted, the average times were less (i.e. quicker) for pairs than individuals. So the hypothesis was accepted, supporting the theory that, at least on some simple repetitive tasks, people work better in pairs.

This has the characteristics of all experiments. One “cause” variable (IV) is changed and the “effect” (DV) is measured, while all other variables are CONTROLLED to remain the same. Two disadvantages are that they can be trivial and artificial.

2 Observation

A lot of information can be gained by observing behaviour, especially in more “natural” environments: home, school playgrounds, nursery. McIntyre (1972) observed children, aged 2-4 yrs, measuring aggression (according to predetermined ratings). Some of the results were:

Possible conclusion: at a young age, boys are more aggressive than girls. This supports the general theory that males are more aggressive than females (Maccoby and Jacklin, 1974).

However, as this wasn’t an experiment (no IV or “cause” variable), it’s not possible to confidently say that gender is a “cause” of aggression. Also, there were many variables outside the researcher’s control, e.g. parental discipline, books read, TV and films watched, etc.

3 Survey

This typically involves measuring many people, often using questionnaires and/or interviews, e.g. about attitudes. Wellings and others conducted the “National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles”, published as Sexual Behaviour in Britain (1994).

One of the statements was: “Companionship and affection are more important than sex in a marriage or relationship.”

“Most noteworthy perhaps, given the emphasis placed on the importance of sex in some sections of the media (Brunt, 1982), is the sizable majority of respondents who do not see sex as the most important part of a marriage or relationship.”

Two problems with surveys, indeed ALL research: are they RELIABLE, i.e. consistent, and VALID, i.e. accurate?

4 Case Study (or Case History)

This is a highly detailed account of an individual (or small group, e.g. a family). Oliver Sacks (1970) published the “Dr. P.” case, about a cultured and popular musician. Tragically, he could no longer recognize people or objects, due to adulthood brain damage.

“He reached out his hand and took hold of his wife’s head, tried to lift it off, to put it on. He had apparently mistaken his wife for a hat!”

Such neurological case studies can reveal a great deal about the brain. In this case, how certain parts control visualization, recognition and remembering. Thus, case (or “clinical”) studies are very useful in Cognitive Psychology. They’re also the foundation of Psychoanalysis.

5 Correlation

This is a measurement of the relationship between two (or more) variables. There are three types: Positive, None (Zero), and Negative. They can be shown as scattergrams.

Correlation Scale and Significance

Correlation can also be shown as a number on a scale…

As a rule of thumb, about 0.6 or 0.7 or higher (+ or −) is usually significant. (Tables provide the exact figure for each sample size.)

But the most important thing to remember is that correlation does not show causation. A serious example of this common misunderstanding occurred in Italy. In the early 1980s, there were unexplained deaths where high mortality correlated positively with consumption of olive oil. The government leapt to the conclusion that the oil was poisonous. Later research showed it was tomatoes contaminated by pesticides that caused the deaths…

There’s also the problem of SPURIOUS Correlations that occur by chance, e.g. increased alcohol sales and bicycles bought by priests.

Other Methodological Issues

In addition to deciding which method to use, Psychologists have to check that the sample selected is appropriate (in both quantity and quality), and that data collected is reliable and valid.

Sampling is the process of selecting a group of people – participants or, old term, “subjects” – for research. It’s rarely possible to test the whole of the “population” under investigation, so a representative “sample” is used. There are 3 main ways of selecting:

Random sampling means that each person in the target “population” has an equal chance of being selected. This should provide typical participants. For example, put the names in a hat, shuffle and then pick out 30.

Quota sampling uses certain numbers from specific groups, e.g. 20 from three different age groups. (This technique is also favoured by many “opinion poll” collectors, for example when surveying voters’ intentions by selecting from a range of towns.)

Opportunistic sampling means “whoever is available at the time”, which can of course produce biased results. (Most Psychological research uses university students!)

Reliability means being “repeatable” or “consistent”. When a reliable test is used, it gives similar results in similar circumstances. (This can be tested by correlation, comparing the results of one study with another. Many tests are standardized in this way.)

However, just because a test or measurement is reliable doesn’t mean it’s valid.

Validity means the test or measurement used is actually measuring what’s intended, e.g. that an IQ test measures “intelligence” (sometimes debatable!).

An example of how a measurement can be “reliable” but not “valid” is a cheap plastic ruler. Consistently measuring a certain length, but not necessarily accurate… Mine’s longer than yours! Your ruler may be RELIABLE – but it ain’t VALID!

Philosophical Methodology

There is also a philosophical aspect to methodology. This asks fundamental questions. “How do we know whether something is true?”… “Is that theory correct?”… “Can we ever prove anything?”… “What is Science?”

For most people today, “science” is about taking MEASUREMENTS and coming up with THEORIES to explain things – with both processes working together. This approach may seem obvious, but it hasn’t always been this way.

In the 19th century, there was almost obsessive measuring – sometimes just for the sake of it! But frequently few links were made between MEASUREMENTS and THEORIES.

By the mid-20th century, with lots of MEASUREMENTS and quite a few THEORIES, it became apparent that many scientists were simply collecting evidence to SUPPORT (verify) their THEORIES without ever really TESTING them.

So it became necessary to find out how THEORIES could be TESTED. Indeed, just what is the difference between SCIENTIFIC and UNSCIENTIFIC THEORIES? One man provided a way to decide…

Karl Popper

Karl Popper (1902-94) set up a criterion: THEORIES can be divided into those that are SCIENTIFIC (i.e. disprovable) and those that are NON-SCIENTIFIC (i.e. not disprovable). NON-SCIENTIFIC THEORIES include: most religious ideas (e.g. The Existence of God), many political ideas (Marxism, Capitalism), Freudian ideas (e.g. the contents of the Unconscious Mind), and daily horoscopes found in newspapers.

Your problem is caused by a conflict between your id and your ego…

This is due to “the hostile antagonisms between bourgeoisie and proletariat”…

This is explained by the conflict between God and the Devil…

A Scientific Theory is one that is REFUTABLE… that is, it can be DISPROVED.

Non-Scientific Theories have the appeal that they can explain EVERYTHING – BUT that is also their weakness! Attempting to test them scientifically is impossible and therefore pointless!

The Process of Science

Combining POPPER’S CRITERION with the generation of a Theory by INDUCTION – going from a specific instance to a general explanation – there is (arguably) a general process by which Science progresses.

an apple falls Gravity If I let go, this will fall Let go an object…