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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2019
From the Qur'an to Ramadan, this friendly guide introduces you to the origins, practices and beliefs of Islam Many non-Muslims have no idea that Muslims worship the same God as Christians and Jews, and that Islam preaches compassion, charity, humility, and the brotherhood of man. And the similarities don't end there. According to Islamic teaching, Muhammad founded Islam in 610 CE after the angel Gabriel appeared to him at Mecca and told him that God had entered him among the ranks of such great biblical prophets as Abraham, Moses, and Christ. Whether you live or work alongside Muslims and want to relate to them better, or you simply want to gain a better understanding of the world's second largest religion, Islam For Dummies can help you make sense of this religion and its appeal, including: * Muhammad, the man and the legend * The Five Pillars of Wisdom * The Five Essentials beliefs of Islam * The different branches of Islam and Islamic sects * The Qur'an and Islamic law * Islam throughout history and its impact around the world Professor Malcolm Clark explores the roots of Islam, how it has developed over the centuries, and it's long and complex relationship with Christianity. He helps puts Islam in perspective as a major cultural and geopolitical force. And he provided helpful insights into, among other things: * Muhammad, the Qur'an and the ethical teachings of Islam * Muslim worship, customs, and rituals surrounding birth, marriage, and death * Shi'ites, Sunnis, Sufis, Druze, and other important Muslim groups * Islam in relation to Judaism and Christianity In these troubled times, it is important that we try to understand the belief systems of others, for through understanding comes peace. Islam For Dummies helps you build bridges of understanding between you and your neighbors in the global village. P.S. If you think this book seems familiar, you're probably right. The Dummies team updated the cover and design to give the book a fresh feel, but the content is the same as the previous release of Islam For Dummies (9780764555039). The book you see here shouldn't be considered a new or updated product. But if you're in the mood to learn something new, check out some of our other books. We're always writing about new topics! .
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Islam For Dummies®
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2019945046
ISBN 978-1-119-64297-8 (pbk); ISBN 978-1-119-64303-6 (ebk), ISBN 978-1-119-64304-3 (ebk)
Islam For Dummies®
To view this book's Cheat Sheet, simply go to www.dummies.com and search for “Islam For Dummies Cheat Sheet” in the Search box.
Table of Contents
Cover
Introduction
About This Book
Conventions Used in This Book
Foolish Assumptions
How This Book is Organized
Icons Used in This Book
Where to Go From Here
Part 1: Understanding the Basics
Chapter 1: Approaching Islam
Getting an Overview of Islamic Origins
Summarizing Islamic Beliefs
Dividing into Branches
Counting the Numbers
Locating Islam on the World Map
Chapter 2: Tracing the Path of Islamic History
The Four Rightly Guided Caliphs
The Golden Age
Bridging the Gap
Three Great Later Empires
Chapter 3: Submitting to God
Affirming the Unity of God: Tawhid
Clarifying the Terminology: Allah Equals God
Testifying to God’s Supremacy
Defining the Attributes of God
Loving and Knowing God
Invoking the 99 Names of God
Chapter 4: What Muslims Believe
Stating the Five Essential Beliefs of Islam
Explaining the Faith to Non-Muslims
Expounding the Faith: Dealing with Difficult Faith Issues
Naming some theological issues
Rejecting Formal Creeds
Chapter 5: Standing Before God: Heaven and Hell
Understanding Other Beings beyond God and Humans
Going to Heaven or Hell: From Life to Death to Resurrection
Envisioning Heaven and Hell
Part 2: Muhammad: The Man, the Book, and Rules of Law
Chapter 6: The Prophet: Muhammad
Setting the Stage: Arabia before Muhammad
Telling the Story of Muhammad
Thinking about Muhammad Theologically
Relating Personally to Muhammad
Searching for the Historical Muhammad
Chapter 7: The Book: The Qur’an
Introducing the Qur’an
Hearing the Qur’an
Treating the Qur’an with Respect
Gathering and Organizing the Qur’an
The Style of the Qur’an
Interpreting the Qur’an
Using the Qur’an in Daily Life
Opening the Qur’an: The Fatiha
Chapter 8: Islamic Tradition and Law
Imitating Muhammad
Understanding God’s Law
Part 3: Becoming Familiar with Muslim Daily Life
Chapter 9: The Five Pillars of Worship: Foundations of Islam
Purification: Getting Ready for Worship
The Shahada (First Pillar): Testifying
Salat (Second Pillar): Praying
Zakat (Third Pillar): Helping the Needy
Saum (Fourth Pillar): Reflecting and Fasting
Hajj (Fifth Pillar): Making the Pilgrimage to Mecca
Chapter 10: Observing Other Religious Rituals and Customs
Rituals linked to the Yearly Calendar
Marking Life’s Transitions
Observing Everyday Customs
Looking at Women’s Rituals
Chapter 11: Muslim Ethics: Living the Good Life
Reviewing the Starting Points for Islamic Ethics
Applying Ethics to Practical Issues
Understanding Sexual Ethics
Outlining Ethics Regarding Marriage and Family
Part 4: Recognizing That All Muslims Aren’t the Same
Chapter 12: Shi`ites
Locating and Counting Shi`ite Muslims
Keeping the Faith in the Family
Reviewing Two Foundational Events of Shi`ism
Following the Line of the 12 Imams
Worshipping in Twelver Shi`ite Fashion
Thinking like Shi`ites
Interacting: Shi`ites, Sufis, and Sunnis
Chapter 13: Sufis
Searching for God
Believing in the Sufi Manner
Making a Contribution: Outstanding Individual Sufis
Organizing the Sufi Community
Acting in the Sufi Manner
Putting Faith into Verse: Sufi Literature
Establishing the Sufi Brotherhoods
Rejecting Sufism
Chapter 14: Exploring Lesser-Known Sects Linked to Islam
`Ibadis (the early Kharijites)
Zaydis (or Fiver Shi`ites)
Isma`ili (or Sevener Shi`ite) Groups
On the Fringes of Islam and Beyond
Chapter 15: Islam in America
Getting an Overview
Organizing the Muslim Community
Reestablishing a Black Muslim Community
Shi`ites in America
Sufis in America
Facing the Future as Muslim Americans
Part 5: Considering Islam’s Concept of Abrahamic Religions
Chapter 16: Seeking Common Roots: Abrahamic Religion and Beyond
Belonging to the Same Family
Reading the Bible in the Qur’an
Muslims Facing Other Religions
Moving Toward Religious Dialogue
Chapter 17: Seeking Common Ground
Ascertaining Muslims’ Concerns
Hearing American Concerns Regarding Muslims
Facing the Major Issues
Knowing What’s Needed from the Muslim Side
Knowing What’s Needed from the Western Side
Chapter 18: Meeting the Challenge of Modernity
Considering Islamic Democracy
Reclaiming Identity as an Islamic State
Forming a Shi`ite Islamic Republic
Reviewing the Globalization of Islamic Radicalism: bin Laden and Afghanistan
Part 6: The Part of Tens
Chapter 19: Ten Muslim Contributions to World Civilization
Transmission of Greek Writings
Algebra and Mathematics
Arabic Numbers
Astronomy
Engineering and Technology
Medicine
Pharmacology
Physics, Specifically Optics
Architecture
Taj Mahal
The Alhambra
Chapter 20: Ten Noteworthy Muslims, Past and Present
Taking a Long Trip: Ibn Battuta
Gathering it All Together: al-Tabari
Wielding the Sword of Saladin
Glorifying the King: Akbar
Thinking Deep Thoughts: Ibn Rushd
Creating the First Philosophy of History: Ibn Khaldun
Becoming a Hero of the Revolution: Ali Shariati
Building Great Mosques: Sinan
Winning the Nobel Prize: Naguib Mahfouz
Listening to Umm Kulthum
Chapter 21: Ten Islamic Regions in the News Today
Africa
South Asia
Southeast Asia and the Pacific
The Balkan States
Iraq
Lebanon
Palestine and Israel
The Former Soviet Union
Syria
Turkey
Part 7: Appendixes
Appendix A: Counting the Years: The Muslim Calendar
Appendix B: Glossary
Appendix C: Resources: Digging Deeper
Academic Resources
The Qur’an
Video Resources
Computer Software
Islam on the Web
And Finally …
Index
About the Author
Advertisement Page
Connect with Dummies
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
TABLE 1-1 Size of Selected World Religions (2000)
TABLE 1-2 The Nine Largest Muslim Countries by Population
Chapter 6
TABLE 6-1 Word of God in Islam and Christianity
Chapter 9
TABLE 9-1 Four Phrases That Make Up the
Adhan
Appendix A
TABLE A-1 Calendar of Upcoming Muslim Religious Dates
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
FIGURE 2-1: Umayyad and Abbasid Empires at their greatest extent.
FIGURE 2-2: Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires.
Chapter 6
FIGURE 6-1: Arabia.
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9-1: Two styles of mosques.
Chapter 14
FIGURE 14-1: Family tree of various Islamic groups.
Chapter 16
FIGURE 16-1: Family tree of Abrahamic religions.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
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Introduction
Welcome to Islam For Dummies, the book that keeps you from mixing up Muhammad, Mecca, and Medina. These pages divulge what you want to know about the beliefs, practices, and origins of Islam, as well as current developments in the Islamic world.
About This Book
Shocked and grieved by the events of September 11, 2001, people around the world are coming to understand that they have questions, misconceptions, and perhaps even fear about Islam, and this book is here to help. From giving information about the 1,000-year-old wound left on Islam by the Christian Crusades to understanding the Five Pillars of Faith, this book helps you put today’s conflicts into perspective.
In addition, if you live or work among Muslims or have seen a new mosque near your church or synagogue, this book can help you understand and relate to the Muslims in your midst. Muslims are poised to become the second largest religious group in the United States. With this book, you can understand the appeal of this faith without ever having to step foot in a mosque or pray toward Mecca.
I’m not Muslim, so this book isn’t written to either defend or attack Islam. Without getting hung up on points of tension between Muslims and non-Muslims, I don’t pretend that valid reasons for such differences don’t exist. This book is also not a textbook. You find some references to other works but no footnotes detailing the support for each point that’s made in the text. A number of good, short introductions to Islam exist, but their brevity means that their treatment of issues is highly selective. Islam For Dummies is longer than the typical 100- to 150-page introduction and, thus, more comprehensive.
Conventions Used in This Book
Keep the following conventions in mind as you read this book:
Muslim
refers to the people who practice Islam;
islam
is Arabic for submission to God;
Islam
refers to the name of the Muslim religion and to all the areas of the world that practice that religion; an
Islamist
is someone who supports Islamic political rule.
Normal dating of years in the West uses
B.c.
(before Christ) and
A.d.
(after the birth of Christ—literally “in the year of our Lord”) dates.
A.d.
and
B.c.
are Christian terms because the very abbreviations affirm Jesus as Christ or as Lord. Today many — certainly not all — books aimed at a general audience that includes non-Christians use the designations
B.c.e.
and
C.e.
, where
B.c.e.
stands for
before common era
and
C.e.
for
common era.
In terms of actual year, a
B.c.e.
date is the same as a
B.c.
date, and a
C.e.
date is the same as an
A.d.
date. That’s why many books, especially those talking about religion and aimed at a general audience, today use the equivalent, more neutral abbreviations of
B.c.e.
and
C.e.
, as I do in this book. And often, if the context of a sentence makes clear that I’m talking about the common era, I list only the year and not
C.e.
I refer to the Qur’an in this manner: Sura 93:6–10. The Qur’an isn’t a collection of books like the Bible, so Sura doesn’t refer to different books of the Qur’an. Instead, sura is similar to the chapter designation of many books. Scholars have hypotheses but don’t even agree on the origin and original meaning of the word sura.
The most helpful comparison I have seen is to the Biblical book of Psalms: You don’t refer to Chapter 1 of the book of Psalms but to Psalm 1. Similarly, you refer not to Chapter 1 of the Qur’an but to Sura 1. The numbers after the colon are the verses in each sura. Just as Genesis 12:1–3 is a way of referring to the first three verses of Chapter 12 of the book of Genesis, Sura 12:1–3 refers to the first three verses of Sura 12 of the Qur’an. (Islam uses the term aya [sign] for these verses.) Versions of the Qur’an differ slightly in how they number verses (see Chapter 7), so if you look up a verse mentioned in this book and it doesn’t seem relevant, read the seven preceding and following verses, and you should find the cited verse in your translation.
An essential assertion of the Qur’an is that it’s the word of God in the Arabic language. A translation of the Qur’an into another language is regarded as a paraphrase or interpretation of the Qur’an, distinct from the Arabic original. Islam has always required Muslim converts to acquire at least a minimal knowledge of the Qur’an in Arabic. Therefore, in discussing Islam and the Qur’an, one can’t avoid Arabic terms, which I use throughout this book. The words that you encounter in this book, often in parentheses, are transliterations of the essential Arabic terms. A
transliteration
is different from a translation. A translation gives the meaning of one word in another language, while a transliteration represents the writing or pronunciation of a word in one language (in this case, Arabic) in another language (in this case, English).
The Arabic language uses different letters and words than does English, but I try to simplify as much as possible. For example, the Arabic language has several different “t” letters, and each is a little different from the others because of markings above and below the letters. In this book, I simply write, “t.”
Similarly, Arabic, like other Semitic languages, has two essential consonants not represented in Western languages. These are referred to as
`aliph
(from which eventually comes English “A”) and
`ayin
(a guttural sound in the back of the throat). While sounding strange and hard to pronounce to Westerners, these are distinctly different letters, which I represent in this book with ‘ and `. Some other books, for simplicity, may ignore these letters, and while that’s acceptable, it can lead to confusion of two words identical except for whether they are spelled with ‘ or `.
Because Arabic belongs to an entirely different language family than English, different possibilities exist for how to represent an Arabic term in English. If, when reading about Islam, you see two similar words spelled slightly differently, they probably both represent the same Arabic word. Don’t be concerned about which spelling is correct. For example,
`id
and
Eid
are two different English translations for the same Arabic word, which designates the two basic sacrifices of Islamic ritual. Where English has accepted normal usage that may not be technically correct, I use the common term with which you are familiar. For example, I refer to Islam’s holy city as Mecca, even through Makka is a more accurate representation of the Arabic name of the most holy city of Islam.
Complete Arabic names can be very long, so I commonly use a shortened version. For example, I refer to the founder of the Hanifite legal school as Abu Hanifa rather than using his complete name: Abu Hanifa al-Nu`man ibn Thabit ibn Zuta.
Foolish Assumptions
As I’ve written this book, I’ve had a picture of you in my mind — your background, your experiences, and your needs for this book. The following are the assumptions I’ve made about you:
You don’t need to know anything about Islam or any organized religion prior to reading this book. However, when studying one religion, you often want to contrast and compare key concepts and terms with those in another religion. In this book, I introduce such terms from Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, but feel free to skip over these references to other religions, if you wish. In any book on Islam, you find more comparisons to Christianity and Judaism than to Far Eastern and South Asian religions. This is because Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are related religions of the same Abrahamic “family” (see
Part 5
). Of course, in today’s global society, the more you know about all religions and cultures, the better prepared you are to understand any one.
You don’t have to be Muslim in order to understand Islam. Believers and non-believers have complementary insights into Islam.
My experiences haven’t included all parts of the Muslim world. When I explain a particular belief or practice in Islam, don’t assume that what I say is the only way to understand that particular belief or practice.
All Muslims won’t agree with everything in this book.
This book isn’t proposing new interpretations of Islam. Instead, it conveys consensus thinking among scholars and theologians.
How This Book is Organized
While writing this book, I’ve had to be selective about which information to include about a religion that’s over 1,400 years old, has over a billion members, and spans the globe. In this book, you won’t find answers to every question you may have, but in each of the seven parts of the book, I’ve attempted to deal with topics that are related to one another. If the Table of Contents doesn’t lead you to what most interests you, try consulting the Index at the back of the book.
Part 1: Understanding the Basics
This chapter helps you understand what Muslims believe, shares a bit of Muslim history, and gives general information about the number of Muslims in the world and which countries are predominantly Muslim.
Part 2: Muhammad: The Man, the Book, and Rules of Law
This part introduces you to Muhammad, the Qur’an, and legal and ethical teachings of Islam.
Part 3: Becoming Familiar with Muslim Daily Life
In this part, I tell you about Muslim worship and about rituals surrounding birth, marriage, and death. I also discuss some Muslims customs.
Part 4: Recognizing That All Muslims Aren’t the Same
Islam has different group of believers and here are some — Shi`ites, Sunnis, Sufis, Druze, and others. This part also discusses Muslims in America.
Part 5: Considering Islam’s Concept of Abrahamic Religions
In this part, I explore how the three Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) relate to one another historically and today, and how Islam has adapted to modernization and globalization over the past 100 years including its contact with other, non-Abrahamic religions.
Part 6: The Part of Tens
Muslims have made outstanding contributions to civilization. This part provides summaries of some of these contributions and the Muslims who have made them. Also, I discuss Islam in a number of specific countries today. If, at some point, you find the details of Islamic belief or practice hard going, take a break and turn to one of the quick chapters in the Parts of Ten.
Part 7: Appendixes
This part tells how to convert dates between the Muslim and the Western calendar, provides a glossary to jog your memory, and has suggestions about resources available for finding out more about Islam.
Icons Used in This Book
To call attention to useful information, I’ve put the following graphic images (icons) beside some paragraphs in this book:
This icon indicates passages from the Qur’an and other Islamic texts.
This icon spotlights important or useful information about Islam.
I put this icon beside information that will come in handy in understanding other things about Islam.
This icon clues you into an area of controversy or misunderstanding.
This icon is beside information that goes into far more detail than you probably want, but is still important for understanding Islam. If you just want the basics, skip these sections.
Where to Go From Here
This book is planned so that you can go directly to whatever interests you most about Islam. It’s not a novel that requires you to begin with Chapter 1 and end with the last chapter. You may want to begin with Chapter 1, which provides a quick overview of Islamic origins and beliefs. After that, check out the following common areas of interest:
If you’re interested in Islamic beliefs, go to
Chapters 3
,
4
,
5
,
7
,
8
, and
11
.
For Muslim rituals and worship, go to
Part 3
.
If you’re more interested in Islamic history, turn to
Chapters 2
,
5
, and
15
.
If you’re primarily interested in the modern world, read
Chapters 17
,
18
, and
21
.
To read about Islam in America and the relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims, skip to
Chapters 15
,
16
, and
17
.
Or plan your own itinerary!
Part 1
Understanding the Basics
IN THIS PART …
Although you can begin reading this book anywhere, this part begins by providing an overview of Islamic origins and beliefs. You find out about the main branches of Islam, the number of Muslims in the world, and the countries that have the largest Muslim populations. You may also want to read Chapter 2 to get an overview of Islamic history: Some of the references you come across in other chapters of this book are easier to understand if you have this historical background.
The real meat of this part deals with Islamic beliefs, including how God is understood in Islam. This part examines the key attribute of God in Islam — his oneness — as well as his other attributes, his names, and the signs that testify to God. In addition, this part considers key theological issues in early Islam, such as the relationships between faith and works and between theology and philosophy. I conclude this part by looking at Islamic beliefs concerning the resurrection of the dead, the final judgment, and the ultimate destination of heaven or hell.
Chapter 1
Approaching Islam
IN THIS CHAPTER
Getting an overview of Islamic origins, beliefs, and practices
Counting the numbers and pinpointing Muslims on the world map
In this chapter, you get a quick glance at Islam that the rest of this book expands on: how the faith began, what Muslims believe, how those beliefs diverge into various branches of the faith, and where and how many Muslims practice their faith around the world today.
Keep in mind that this chapter is only a teaser for more detailed treatment in subsequent chapters of individual topics.
Getting an Overview of Islamic Origins
In about 610 A.d., the angel Gabriel appeared to a man named Muhammad in the city of Mecca in present day Saudi Arabia. Gabriel told Muhammad that God had commissioned Muhammad as His last prophet. The revelations Muhammad received until his death in 632 constitute the Qur’an, Islam’s holy book. Muhammad believed that he was restoring and completing the original religion of humanity, that he stood in the line of the Biblical prophets who had also been sent by God to call people to submit to God.
Muhammad’s contemporaries in Mecca worshipped many gods and rejected Muhammad’s call to worship only one God. In 622, Muhammad and his small band of believers emigrated from Mecca north to the town of Yathrib, which the Muslims renamed Medina. That year would eventually be set as the first year of the Muslim calendar (see Appendix A). At Medina, Muhammad established the first Muslim community.
In 630, Muhammad led the army of the growing Muslim community against Mecca, which submitted peacefully. By the time of Muhammad’s death, two years later, most of Arabia had accepted Islam and become part of the Islamic community. Muhammad was succeeded by a series of rulers (caliphs) under whom Islam burst forth as a new power on the world scene. In less than 100 years, Muslim armies had incorporated most of the lands from the western border regions of northwest India in the East to Spain in the West into a single, great empire usually called a caliphate.
Gradually, the original unity of Islam was lost, never to be regained. The caliphate fell before the Mongol onslaught in 1258. Islam continued to spread in the following centuries, but new Muslim kingdoms rose and fell. By the end of the 17th century, the military power of Islam ebbed away and by the end of the 19th and on into the first part of the 20th century, most Muslim countries came under direct or indirect control of European nations. In the second half of the 20th century, Muslim nations gained their independence. Despite political and economic decline, the number of Muslims in the world increased rapidly in the 20th century, and Islam became for the first time a truly global religion.
Summarizing Islamic Beliefs
Muslims share many of the same basic beliefs as Christians and Jews, while differing fundamentally from Eastern religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism:
God created the world and all that is in it.
God established in His revealed word the principles by which to live, including concern for the poor.
One shouldn’t worship other gods, or money, or power, or oneself.
At the end of time, God will judge all people.
If a person had fulfilled the divine command, he or she will go to heaven.
God calls upon all people to submit to His will, as embodied in His revealed law. In fact, the word islam means submission; Islam comes from the same root as the word for peace. Islam is often thought of as the religion of submission to God. Basic Islamic beliefs are summarized in the Five Pillars of Faith (see Chapter 4).
Islam is the name of the religion. A Muslim is the name of a member of the Islamic religion. The word “Muslim” means “one who submits to God.” A Muslim isn’t a Mohammedan, and Muslims don’t belong to a Mohammedan religion, because Muhammad is only a man. Muslims worship God and not Muhammad.
Basic Islamic practice is summed up in the Five Pillars of Worship (see Chapter 9). Muslims must confess that only God is God and that Muhammad is His messenger. They stop whatever they’re doing five times a day to pray to God. Once a year, in the month of Ramadan, they fast from dawn to dusk. Each year, they give a defined portion of their wealth to serve God’s purposes. And once in a lifetime, each Muslim who is able must make the pilgrimage to Mecca.
Dividing into Branches
Islam has two main branches: the Sunnis and the Shi`ites.
Sunnis constitute from 84 to 90 percent of the world’s Muslims. The term “Sunni” refers to the traditions followed by Muhammad and the early Muslims.
After Muhammad’s death, some Muslims believed that his cousin and son-in-law, `Ali, should have succeeded him (as opposed to the first three caliphs who came after Muhammad). The term
Shi`a
refers to the party of `Ali, those who believed that religious and political leadership of the Muslim community should always remain in the line of `Ali and his wife Fatima. Because of disputes that arose about the line of succession, Shi`ites divided into a number of different groups, such as Ithna`-Ashari (or Twelvers), Isma`ilis, and Zaydis (see
Chapter 12
for details).
Sufis are another large group of Muslims. Sufism is Islamic mysticism, rather than a sect, like Sunnis or Shi`ites. So, a Sufi is normally also a Sunni (or more rarely, a Shi`ite) Muslim. Many Sufi orders (see Chapter 13) exist just like many monastic orders exist in Roman Catholicism.
Counting the Numbers
Determining the membership of any religion is tricky, but the surveys and studies are good at giving general ranges, as provided in Table 1-1. The demographers (those who study populations) don’t judge whether people are active members or whether they almost never attend a temple, synagogue, mosque, or church. When one of these studies lists 360 million Buddhists in the world, this means that 360 million people consider themselves to be Buddhists.
TABLE 1-1 Size of Selected World Religions (2000)
Religion
Size
Percentage
Christianity
1.9 billion
31–33 percent
Islam
1.2 billion
19–22 percent
Hinduism
881 million
14 percent
Buddhism
360 million
6 percent
Judaism
14 million
under .5 percent
Christianity and Islam are still both growing, most rapidly in Africa over the past century. Muslim countries have some of the world’s highest fertility figures, which accounts for much of the Islamic growth.
The figures for 1900 provide an interesting comparison to those for 2000. In 1900, the 555 million Christians represented 32 percent of the world’s population, about the same as today. In contrast, the 200 million Muslims constituted only 12.3 percent of the world population, in contrast to Islam’s 19 percent plus today. This percentage growth is why Islam is called the world’s fastest growing major religion.
For more information on the demographics of world religions, go to www.adherents.com.
Locating Islam on the World Map
All Arabs aren't Muslims, and all Muslims aren’t Arabs (the original inhabitants of the Middle East who became the dominant population of many Middle Eastern and North African countries, from Iraq to Morocco). In fact, Arabs are only 20 percent of the world’s Muslims. In contrast, South Asia (Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India) has 300 million Muslims. The Middle East has 200 million Muslims, but the two largest Muslim countries in the Middle East — Turkey and Iran — aren’t Arab countries. Of course, Arabic is the language of Islam, and Arabic culture has left an indelible impression upon Islam, although most Muslims don’t speak Arabic.
Don’t assume that all Arabs are Muslims. More Arab-Americans are Christian than Muslim. Arab Christians are a large minority of the population of Lebanon and a small but significant minority in Iraq. As late as the middle of the 20th century, Christian Arabs were an influential minority of the population of Palestine, although many have since emigrated to the United States and elsewhere. However, well over 90 percent of Arabs are Muslim.
ARABS AND MUSLIMS
Many non-Muslims simply equate Arabs and Muslims, and while most Arabs are Muslims, not all are. More Christian Arabs live in the United States than Muslim Arabs. Christian Arabs are one of the three major communities of Lebanon and prior to emigration from Palestine to the West in the years after 1967, were an important element of the population of Palestine. Other Muslim countries, such as Iraq, have a small but ancient Christian Arab population that goes back to a time when the majority of the population was Christian. In Arabia itself, Christians were never a significant element of the population except on the fringe in areas like Yemen. Prior to their conversion to Islam, most Arabs of Arabia were polytheists. At the time of Muhammad, the majority of the population of present-day Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and possibly Iraq were Christian Arabs. Depending on the country, Christian Arabs may be non-Latin Catholics, Greek Orthodox, or members of one of the other ancient branches of Eastern Christianity.
Muslims are concentrated in a continuous band of countries that extends across North Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and then to Malaysia and Indonesia in Southeast Asia. The percentage of the population that is Muslim in these countries (except India, where Muslims are a small minority) ranges from the low 80s to more than 99 percent. Note that Shi`ites are the largest Muslim group in Iran, Iraq, Yemen, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, and Lebanon. For about 1,000 years, most of South Asia (today’s Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India, but not Sri Lanka) was ruled by Muslims. If you add together the Muslim population of these three countries (see Table 1-2), you see that the total constitutes by far the largest number of Muslims in any area of the world.
TABLE 1-2 The Nine Largest Muslim Countries by Population
Country
Muslim Population
Indonesia
170,310,000
Pakistan
136,000,000
Bangladesh
106,050,000
India
103,000,000
Turkey
62,410,000
Iran
60,790,000
Egypt
53,730,000
Nigeria
47,720,000
China
37,108,000?
Over time, through emigration and conversion, most of the population of today’s Pakistan and Bangladesh became Muslim, while the majority of the population of India remained Hindu. At independence in 1948, the former British colony of India (including all three of the countries named) split into India and Pakistan, resulting in a massive displacement of population as most Hindus in Muslim-dominated areas moved to India, while a substantial number of Muslims in areas with Hindu majority moved to Pakistan. (Later, a civil war in Pakistan gave rise to the independent nation of Bangladesh in what had been East Pakistan). Since 1948, relations between India and Pakistan have been tense, coming close at times to all-out war. Because a substantial number of Muslims remain in India, clashes at the local level have often broken out between Muslims and Hindus. Both religious factors (for example, some Hindus are offended by Muslims’ using cattle for food, because the cow is a sacred animal in Hinduism) and political factors (for example, disputes over Kashmir, a Muslim majority area that remains with India) play a role in these conflicts.
China may have many more Muslims than the figure in Table 1-2, but no one knows for certain because the Chinese government tends to understate the numbers of adherents of all religions and doesn’t cooperate with demographers wishing to arrive at more accurate figures.
Go to www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,567574,00.html on the Internet where you’ll find a click-on map. Click on 80–100 percent, and those countries light up; other percentage ranges follow suit.
Chapter 2
Tracing the Path of Islamic History
IN THIS CHAPTER
Succeeding Muhammad: the four rightly guided caliphs
Ruling an Empire: the Umayyad and Abbasid Empires
Transforming the state: three post-medieval Islamic empires
Islam isn’t just a religion of individuals bound together for spiritual pursuits and guidance. Instead, Islam attempts to organize all aspects of human society. To understand Islam, one must pay attention to its political and cultural embodiment. While you can read other chapters in this book without having first read this chapter, some concepts make more sense when you have an overall sense of the Islamic history in this chapter.
Muslims today who want to establish a Muslim state often look to the first Islamic states for models to emulate and for inspiration. To Muslims, these times aren’t simply irrelevant ancient history. Because it was during this period that Islam took shape as a civilization and a political and religious system, clues for the present are to be found in the developments of this early period from 632 (Muhammad’s death) until the fall of Baghdad in 1258.
This early history falls conveniently into three periods. The first is that of the first four successors of Muhammad during whose rule Islam rapidly spread out of Arabia into Syria, Iraq, Egypt, and parts of Iran (632–661). Next came the first dynasty (in which rule remained within a single family). The Umayyads (661–750) ruled from their capital at Damascus over a unified Islamic community that extended from the borders of India in the East to Spain and Morocco in the West. Empires don’t last forever, and Umayyad rule had created many enemies. The Abbasid family led a successful assault as a result of which the Abbasid dynasty (750–1258) replaced the Umayyads. The new capital of Baghdad wasn’t only the political center of Islam but also its cultural center.
Islam has existed for 1,400 years, includes one-fifth of the world’s population, and has ruled geographical areas that are more extensive than any other world empire. One chapter can’t cover all of Islamic history or all areas in which Islam came to predominate. Much of importance to the history of Islam I don’t discuss in this chapter, or the chapter would become a confusing, long list of rulers and dynasties with strange names, dates, and geographical terms. Specifically, I don’t discuss in this chapter the following important parts of the story of the spread and history of Islam. You can read more about these episodes in a number of books such as the one by Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd Edition (Cambridge University Press, 2002).
Islam spread during the 13th to 16th centuries into Indonesia, today’s largest Muslim country.
Islam from the earliest period established its presence along the coast of East Africa and subsequently spread not only in East but also in West Africa, until it became the dominant religion in the northern half of sub-Saharan Africa.
In the time of the Umayyads, Islam extended across North Africa and into Spain. As elsewhere, this region, including modern Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Spain, has its own unique history and accomplishments.
Islam became the dominant religion in central Asia and the Caucasus Mountain regions — from the Black Sea to part of Eastern China. Much of this region was part of the former Soviet Union (see
Chapter 21
) and now includes a number of newly independent states.
I omit any detailed treatment of developments in the Middle Eastern heartland of Islam between the later portion of the Abbasid dynasty and the rise of the Ottoman and Safavid Empires, a time in which many dynasties rose and fell, but few established lasting control over more than a limited area.
THE REALM OF ISLAM (DAR AL-ISLAM)
Islam understands its mission as extending God’s rule over the entire world. Practically speaking, this means that the entire world should be under Islamic rule. Islam divided the world into Islamic and non-Islamic realms:
The dar al-Islam (realm of Islam) is that portion of the world under Islamic rule. God’s intent, according to Islam, is that the dar al-Islam should expand until it includes the entire world so that all people live according to God’s plan and law.The dar al-harb (realm of war) is that portion of the world not under Islamic rule. God commands Muslims to bring all peoples into Islam (although not by forced conversion).Sometimes a third category is mentioned, the dar al-sulh (realm of truce), the portion of the world that exists in a treaty relationship with the dar al-Islam but isn’t presently under Islamic rule.Islamic scholars debated which geographical areas were properly considered part of the dar al-Islam and under what circumstances an area ceases to be part of the dar al-Islam. They also argued about whether an Islamic state should be at war with any adjoining non-Muslim state in order to bring it into the dar al-Islam. Another point of discussion concerned whether a person can properly live a Muslim life if he doesn’t live in an Islamic state. Some said that those who, due to changes in political boundaries, found themselves living in a non-Islamic state should immigrate to an Islamic state (just as many Jews believe Jews living outside of Israel have a religious obligation to immigrate to Israel). These remain relevant issues in Islam today in the light of — for example — large-scale immigration of Muslims to Western countries.
Dar (as in dar al-Islam) is difficult to translate into English. The root meaning of the Arabic word is “to surround.” Before Muhammad, dar designated the circular encampment of a nomadic group. It can also indicate the housing complex of an extended family with its surrounding wall, in contrast to the house proper. Thus, “compound” or “estate” is perhaps the closest you can come in English to this word, which designates a type of dwelling area. Dar is frequently translated into English as “land” or “house.” Thus the concept of dar al-Islam is a bounded compound in which the entire Muslim community dwells secure under God’s law.
The Four Rightly Guided Caliphs
At his death, Muhammad left behind the basis for a new religion and for a new political system. However, in the case of both religion and state, the future would determine the form that both Islamic religion and an Islamic state would take. Although, for Muslims, religion and the state are closely connected, this chapter focuses on the development of Islam as a political and cultural system. Here are of the main political issues which the young Muslim community based in Medina had to resolve and work through over the next century or two of its development:
Would the Islamic community, which united most Arabs for the first time in history, endure, or would it dissolve with the death of Muhammad?
If it did endure, who should head the community? Should the ruler exercise both political and religious authority or only be the political leader of Islam?
What was to be the nature of this community: broad-based, including all those who didn’t explicitly exclude themselves from Islam, or a more narrow, puritanical community?
Was the Islamic community to remain an Arab state, or should the state include non-Arabs on a basis of equality?
How should Islam be consolidated and institutionalized?
The word caliph means successor or representative. Adam, for example, was the caliph of God — the representative of God on earth. Caliph, as a designation of an Islamic ruler, is an abbreviation of the phrase, “caliph (successor) of the messenger of God.” A movement still exists today to reestablish the caliphate.
Choosing a successor: Abu Bakr (632–634)
If the political community that Muhammad had fashioned wasn’t to fall apart at his death, quick and decisive action was necessary. But who should lead the community? Four groups could have staked a claim:
The natives of Medina who had supported Muhammad (“helpers”):
Although Muhammad lived in Medina until his death, the natives of Medina could have seen the possibility of the elite of Mecca reasserting their leadership among the Arabs.
The most influential leaders of the Quraysh tribe:
This group had converted to Islam only shortly before or after the conquest of Mecca in 630. Nevertheless, by lineage and tradition, they believed that a leader of the Quraysh should lead a state founded by one of their people.
`Ali, the son of Muhammad’s uncle and guardian, Abu Talib:
Muhammad had taken `Ali into his own home, and `Ali had married Muhammad’s only surviving child, Fatima. The children of `Ali and Fatima were Muhammad’s direct heirs. Supporters of `Ali believed leadership should remain within the family of Muhammad and continue the combination of religious and political leadership that Muhammad exercised. However, tribal leadership in Arabia didn’t automatically pass from father to son. Rather the leaders of the tribe or clan chose a new leader from among the best qualified.
Sheikh,
the word for the tribal leader, literally meant “old man,” indicating that age and experience were a necessary prerequisite for leadership. `Ali, still a relatively young 34 years of age at Muhammad’s death, wouldn’t have been the obvious candidate. Supporters of `Ali had a different view. They pointed to a tradition that said Muhammad had designated `Ali as his successor on his return from the farewell pilgrimage to Mecca. But the wording of this tradition is ambiguous, and other Muslims didn’t understand Muhammad’s words to be a designation of `Ali as his successor. (See
Chapter 12
for more on the Shi`ites, the party of `Ali.)
The companions:
This was the final group from whom a successor could’ve been chosen, the earliest Meccan converts to Islam, from before the time of the immigration to Medina in 622. Most of the companions came from lesser clans of the Quraysh tribe and thus weren’t the people whom the elite of the Quraysh felt to be their natural leaders.
Given these options, Abu Bakr, both one of the companions and a member of the Quraysh, was the obvious compromise choice. An older man, Abu Bakr was the second or third convert to Islam. He had accompanied Muhammad on the flight (emigration) from Mecca to Medina. Known as “the Righteous,” he had an unblemished reputation. `A’isha, Muhammad’s favorite wife (after the death of Khadija), was Abu Bakr’s daughter, and Muhammad had designated him to lead prayer during the period of Muhammad’s final illness. The actual choice of Abu Bakr, however, was made by a small, inner group of the Quraysh in the absence of both `Ali and the native leaders of Medina.
Muhammad had brought together in a single federation more Arab tribes than ever before. Still, it wasn’t obvious that the state Muhammad had created would endure beyond his death. Here’s why: According to Arab custom, leaders who had taken an oath of allegiance to Muhammad would be released from that oath at his death. For a tribe to withdraw from the young state didn’t automatically mean that the tribe rejected Islam. But for some tribes, acceptance of Islam had been more a matter of political expediency than of religious conviction. These groups could’ve seized upon the death of Muhammad as an opportunity to renounce Islam, and when Abu Bakr became caliph, a number of tribes did revolt, a time known as the Apostasy (al-Ridda) in Islam. Some of these revolts were led by individuals who claimed to be inspired prophets with their own revelations. Abu Bakr, with the aid of the future second caliph, `Umar, successfully put down these revolts. He also brought under Islamic rule the few tribes in Arabia that hadn’t yet accepted Islam and made preparations for military expeditions outside of Arabia. Islam had survived its first period of crisis following the death of Muhammad.
Expanding out of Arabia: `Umar (634–644)
On his deathbed, Abu Bakr appointed the 43-year-old `Umar, already the second most important person in the young state, as his successor.
`Umar had originally been a vocal opponent of Islam. At one point in 616, `Umar set out to kill Muhammad but stopped at his sister’s home to rebuke her and her husband for having embraced Islam. When he heard them recite from the Qur’an, he converted on the spot. Known for a quick temper, he nonetheless became one of Muhammad’s strongest supporters.
Despite the tremendous wealth then flowing into Mecca and Medina from military conquests, `Umar led a simple life. Sunni Muslims often look back to `Umar as an ideal ruler. Among some of the highlights and achievements of `Umar’s very successful rule as caliph were the following:
`Umar took the title
Amir al-Mu’minim
(commander of the faithful), a title that became traditional among his successors.
He oversaw the first major expansion of Islam outside of Arabia, conquering what is now Palestine, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, and Iran. To the west and north stood the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire. To the east and northeast was the Sasanian Empire, the heir of the ancient Persians. With the aid of able military commanders, such as `Amr ibn al-As and Khalid Ibn al-Walid, `Umar and his army inflicted a major defeat on the Byzantine army at the Yarmuk River in southern Syria in 636, and two years later defeated the main Sasanian army in southern Iraq in 637 and occupied the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon. While the Byzantium (Eastern Roman Empire) remained a significant power for centuries more, the victory of 637 marked the end of the Sasanian (Iranian) Empire as a major power in the region as Arab armies pressed northward into Northern Iraq and by the mid-650s had reached eastern Iran. By 642, Muslim armies had taken control of Egypt from the Romans.
He established the basis for administering the greatly expanded Islamic state, utilizing some pre-Islamic bureaucratic structures already in place in areas conquered from the Romans. Many important mid-level positions in the government were occupied by non-Muslims who had the necessary expertise that the invading Arabs lacked.
`Umar settled soldiers of the Arab armies in camps at Kufa and Basra in Iraq (and similar settlements elsewhere later) where they were separated from the local population. These camps became major centers for the subsequent development of Islam in their region. Soldiers were paid pensions from the spoils of war.
As the Arabs settled in conquered areas, their leaders often became the new local elite. However, many of the pre-Islamic elites were allowed to retain their lands and positions. Many of these people weren’t happy with either Roman or Sasanian rule, and by his policies `Umar was able to gain their support for the new Muslim state. A number of these members of the local, native elites converted to Islam — undoubtedly in part to improve their standing in the new Islamic order.
He set the date of the emigration from Mecca to Medina (622) as the beginning date of the Muslim calendar.
`Umar instituted a policy of tolerance toward Christians and Jews, fleshing out statements in the Qur’an regarding non-Muslim “peoples of the Book” (people who had a scripture). `Umar didn’t force Christians and Jews to convert to Islam.
For the next 200 years, Muslims remained a minority in the Middle East. In about 637, the Christian patriarch of Jerusalem voluntarily surrendered the city to the advancing Muslim army. Muslim tradition says that when `Umar entered the city, he refused to pray at the church that marked the site of the crucifixion of Jesus lest his followers transform the church into a mosque. The document known as the Treaty of `Umar set forth the conditions under which Christians and Jews were permitted to live in the Islamic state. These protected peoples (dhimmi) could continue to practice their religion but couldn’t make new converts or build new places of worship. The dhimmi wore distinctive clothing and paid an extra tax to compensate for not serving in the Muslim army. Contemporary scholars disagree as to whether Muslim accounts such as this one of the conquest of Jerusalem and the Treaty of `Umar represent what actually happened or whether it’s the view of a century or more later when Muslims began to recount their early history. Much scholarly effort has been expended over the last 20 years to recover a more historically accurate account of early Muslim history — and much remains to be done. In either case, this story and the text of the Treaty of `Umar became crucial for later Muslims in determining how Muslims should treat Christians and Jews in newly conquered lands. It remains relevant to how Muslims view their relationship to Christians and Jews and indeed to other non-Muslims today.
A disgruntled slave assassinated `Umar in 644. On his deathbed, `Umar appointed a shura (consultative body) consisting of `Ali, `Uthman and other prominent leaders to select the next caliph. They chose `Uthman. Today, advocates of a form of Islamic democracy point to the institution of the shura as an early Islamic precedent. Shi`ites naturally believe that once again `Ali was unjustly denied the position of caliph and very possibly `Ali himself only reluctantly went along with the appointment of `Uthman.
Gathering the Qur’an: `Uthman (644–656)
Although personally pious, `Uthman was a more controversial and less capable ruler than his predecessors. He was one of the early converts to Islam, had married a daughter of Muhammad, and belonged to the powerful Umayyad clan of the Quraysh. In his appointments to government positions, he favored members of his own clan, most of whom were late converts to Islam, and these appointments aroused resentment. The people of Medina resented the increasing prominence of Mecca in the affairs of the state, and many Muslims were repulsed by the increasing wealth and power being accumulated by the elite.
Groups opposed to `Uthman’s policies also arose in the key Islamic center of Kufa in Iraq and in Egypt. In the end, `Uthman was assassinated — probably by Egyptian rebels — while reading the Qur’an. Although it’s unlikely that `Ali was involved in `Uthman’s assassination, some of `Ali’s enemies including `Uthman’s family (the Umayyad clan) and `A’isha (Muhammad’s wife) and her supporters suggested that he was, or that at the least he hadn’t acted as he should have to protect `Uthman.
During `Uthman’s reign, the geographical expansion of the state continued, especially into Libya and Tunisia. Most significantly, according to Muslim tradition, he was responsible for establishing an authoritative version of the Qur’an. Thus, an authoritative version of the scripture was established much earlier in the history of Islam than was the case in Christianity and Judaism.
Rebelling against `Ali (656–661)
A legitimate council (shura) selected `Ali as the fourth caliph, but he never firmly established his power as ruler, because many believed he was involved in the murder of `Uthman. `Ali was personally upright and appealed to the less powerful members of the community. He moved his capital to Kufa in Iraq. From that time on, the political center of Islam was never again in Arabia.
`Uthman’s death marked the beginning of the first fitna (rebellion) that threatened the unity of the Muslim community. Three subsequent fitnas would follow in the time of the first two Islamic dynasties, the Umayyads and the Abbasids. `Ali was also opposed by Muhammad’s wife `A’isha and her supporters, whom he defeated at the Battle of the Camel in 656.
`Uthman had appointed his nephew, Mu`awiya, as governor of Syria. When `Ali, as the new caliph, sent his new appointee as governor to Syria, Mu`awiya refused to yield the post, and the armies of `Ali and Mu`awiya met in battle in 658. `Ali’s forces were winning when the opposing cavalry put pages from the Qur’an on the tips of their spears and cried out “Let God decide.” By accepting this proposed arbitration, `Ali compromised his position and lost the support of his more fervent supporters who took up arms against `Ali. This group became know as the Kharijites (meaning, the “seceders” because they had withdrawn from `Ali’s camp). The Kharijites were an extremist, puritanical group in early Islam who believed that only the strictest believers should be considered Muslims and that the caliph should be chosen on the basis of his Muslim faith — not his family or political connections. In addition, the three-person arbitration panel was stacked against `Ali, and the decision went against him. `Ali managed to hang on to power in part of Iraq until a Kharijite zealot assassinated him in 661. The Kharijites intended to assassinate Mu`awiya also but that attempt failed. In some ways, the Kharijites can be seen as forerunners of extremist (but sincere) Islamist groups of the present day (see Chapter 18).
