Nachiketas’ Third Wish E-Book

Jens Gnaur

• Herausgeber: BoD - Books on Demand
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024

Seitenzahl: 282

Beschreibung

Nachiketas’ Third Wish - with the immortal tale from the Upanishads of young Nachiketas’ encounter with Yama, or Death, as its point of departure - tells the fascinating story of the world’s major contemplative and meditative traditions beginning with the ancient Vedas, Upanishads and classical works on Yoga and concluding in our time with Heartfulness and the science of Yoga. Besides meditative Yoga the story embraces Buddhism, Christian mysticism and its Greek and Roman origins, and Sufism with its unique poetic heritage. There are separate chapters on the female contemplatives, on paradox, humour, and aesthetics as we enjoy it in Zen, Japanese poetry, and art and architecture, on Mindfulness, and on contemporary contemplative trends as they are conveyed in health, wellness, and management. But this is also the enchanting story of sages and saints, of great spiritual personalities like the Buddha, St. Francis of Assisi, Mira Bai, and Ram Chandra of Shahjahanpur. It is a story of great poetry, of deep reflections on the enigmas of life, and of contemplative ways of living that reflect the eternal harmony behind the surface of things. Nachiketas’ Third Wish illustrates how our yearning for the Ultimate is universal, beyond time, space, and cultures, how we all deep within our hearts share in the same immortal essence, how meditation and a contemplative lifestyle can free us from our bonds to suffering, and how in the perennial quest for oneness with the Ultimate, expressed in the different contemplative traditions, we become one with all humanity.

Leseprobe

About the author

The author, Jens Gnaur, completed his studies of the history of religion and India culture in the seventies and has pursued the subject of the world’s contemplative traditions and literature ever since. As a consultant he has travelled and stayed extensively in Asia and Africa. He lived with his family for four years in Buddhist Bhutan and after that in Laos with frequent visits to the temple city of Luang Prabang. Jens has meditated with Heartfulness since 1972 and had the opportunity to meet the 20th century sage, philosopher, and Yogi Ram Chandra of Shahjahanpur several times. He has published two novels and a book on the Bhagavad Gita: Being One: the vision and way of the Bhagavad Gita

When the wise realize the omnipresent Spirit, who rests invisible in the visible, and permanent in the impermanent, then they go beyond sorrow

Katha Upanishad (Mascaro, 1965, p. 59)

Contents

PART 1: INTRODUCTION

PART 2: THE CONTEMPLATIVE TRADITIONS

1. The origins of Yoga: Rigveda and the Indus Culture

2. The Beginning of Yoga: The Upanishads

3. Bhagavad Gita

4. Classical Yoga: The Yoga Aphorisms of Patanjali

5. Vedanta

6. Buddhism

7. Love, Rapture and Poetry

8. Sufism

9. The Christian Contemplative Tradition

10. Female Contemplatives

11. Paradox, Humour, and Aesthetics

PART 3: THE ART OF CONTEMPLATIVE BEING Mindfulness, Heartfulness, and The Supreme State

12. Being Mindful: Contemplative Trends in the 21st Century

13. Living by the Heart: Facets of Heartfulness Wisdom, Practice, and Lifestyle

14. Being and Beyond

PART 4: CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES

15. The Science of Meditation

16. Ancient Wisdom for 21st Century Management

17. A Contemplative Approach to the Challenges of the 21st Century

PART 5: CONCLUSION

PART 1 INTRODUCTION

The interest in meditation, Yoga, mindfulness, heartfulness, and transformation of heart and mind towards peace and harmony, has never been greater than it is today. It is now a global trend no longer limited by country borders, culture, language and religion.

There is a rich literature available on these subjects and a wealth of articles, recorded sessions with spiritual personalities, speeches, talks, YouTube presentations, and dialogues in social media groups.

In this flood of information there are often references to specific seminal works on spiritual philosophy, meditation, etc., to the legendary or real authors of these works, to specific meditative trends and traditions, and to the different philosophies or teachings associated with them.

Unless you have a background in the philosophy and history of the meditative and contemplative traditions, the information on the subject which you come across, for instance during the early years of you practice of meditation, can be confusing, and you might experience that you lack clear reference points for making a sense out of it all.

The purpose of this book is to give a brief overview of the major meditative and contemplative traditions and make sense of it, both the history and the essence of teachings, from the origins of classical Yoga sometime in the first millennium BC and the long journey from ancient times to Heartfulness and Yoga for wellness of the 21st century.

This long and adventurous journey naturally includes Buddhism, Sufism, Mindfulness, and the Christian contemplative tradition. The book also has chapters on the female contemplatives; on paradox, humour, and aesthetics in the contemplative traditions; on the science of meditation and how meditation may contribute to health; on meditation as a management tool; and finally on a contemplative approach to the challenges of the 21st century.

The idea for the book emerged when I was asked by fellow meditators to contribute to an exhibition, Yoga 4 Unity, June 2024, at the UNESCO center in Paris. While starting the work it soon became clear to me that Yoga cannot be looked at in isolation, that the meditative and contemplative traditions of the world are all connected, and that they make more sense when treated as a universal wholeness of human aspiration for serenity, harmony, and attainment of the Ultimate.

*

Many years ago, I had the immense fortune to meet an eminent master of the ancient, meditative Yoga tradition, Ram Chandra of Shahjahanpur, who is the founder of Heartfulness meditation. In all his humility and simplicity, he conveyed with eloquent subtleness the quintessence and beauty of the meditative path, and I early on got at least a glimpse of an essence that encompasses this whole, profound sphere of human life.

At that time, I had just started university studies of comparative religion and soon became acquainted with the spiritual trends in India, with Buddhism, Japanese Zen, Sufism and Christian mysticism. A few years later I had the opportunity to pursue deeper studies of the ancient Indian traditions based on the Vedic and Sanskrit languages. With a great appetite for exploration into this fascinating world I immersed myself in the Vedas, the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Aphorisms, and texts of the supreme literary heritage of the East.

Already then it became clear to me through my reading, research and the experiences gained in heartfulness meditation that despite differences of religion, culture, and language, these works and traditions have much in common.

To illustrate the point, I have, during my research for this book, identified ten facets of contemplative life common to all the traditions (See the chapter on Buddhism for an exception to the first two):

Perception of a transcendent Reality, or Divinity; the eternal harmony behind all phenomena.

Perception of a Self within, an immortal Soul, or essence, common to all human beings, which reflects the eternal harmony.

Intense love and yearning of the heart for union with the Ultimate or Divinity.

Wisdom, peace and harmony as main guiding principles of life.

Insights into human nature, an understanding of what is detrimental and what is conducive to harmony and spiritual development.

Selflessness and humility. Cessation of ego-centeredness.

Importance given to detachment, serenity of mind, and equanimity.

High standards of integrity and ethics.

Generosity, kindness, and empathy towards fellow human beings.

All-embracing love and compassion for humanity.

As for the ancient sources, I realized that they mark the beginnings of traditions of meditative spirituality and a contemplative way of life in East and West that has endured through the ages and is continuing and very much alive today in the 21st century. They illustrate how the major concerns of human beings for ensuring peace amid life’s many challenges are ever the same and has not changed fundamentally over the past 5000 years.

The old sources express a genuine thirst to understand the ultimate purpose of life, how we can achieve happiness and overcome suffering, the reasons for misery, the mysteries of life and death, and whether there is an eternal Being who transcends all this. These are the big existential questions of human life that are as relevant today, as they were then.

The spirit of exploration, which permeates the old sources, was driven not only by the thirst to understand, but also to apply the acquired knowledge for improving the human condition. Science, philosophy, and spirituality originated from the same sense of wonder and a search for knowledge. It was in this fertile soil of inquiry that Yoga and the art of meditation developed.

This development originated during the same era, the first millennium BC, in China, India, and ancient Greece. It was the start, not only of spiritual seeking, but also of philosophy, metaphysics, science, mathematics, astronomy, physics, and grammar.

The contemplative way of life

Contemplative philosophy, practices and lifestyle were since the earliest times based on the assumption that behind life’s turbulence of daily challenges, struggles, stress, dilemmas and joys and sorrows, there is an eternal harmony of, undisturbed peace, stillness, and unchangeableness. The imbalances that we experience in life have a perfect balance at their center. This harmony we associate with a perception of a higher, transcendent Reality, the Ultimate, or Divinity.

The second assumption is that this universal harmony is mirrored deep within the human heart, in our Soul, or inner Self, and is manifested as peace, stillness, and a sense of transcendence.

When the contemplative meditates or practices silent prayer, he or she turns the attention away from the chaos and noise of the external world towards this center of being, to the serenity within, in which he or she then immerses.

This enables us, as meditators and aspiring contemplatives, when stepping out of the meditation room and into the home or office or city, to allow the harmony to resonate in the way we think, communicate, and behave. This reflects on our environment and the responses we receive from people. The qualities of this harmony, such as humility, serenity, equanimity, empathy, and kindness, begin to form our character. We are then able to let go of the attributes of disharmony such as ego-centeredness, anger, fear, envy, and uncontrollable desire.

This turn of the internal mirror of the mind towards inner harmony and away from external disharmony enables us, as contemplatives and meditators, to face life’s many challenges in a different way, with wisdom and compassion. This benefits not only us, but also our family, colleagues, society, and the world at large.

A positive spiral of contemplative life has commenced.

*

The crucial, and still relevant, question which was raised by the ancient sages was this: when human nature in its essence is peaceful, good, and compassionate, why do we continue to think and act in ways which give us trouble, inner discontent, quarrels with other people, anxiety, and stress, and which ultimately makes us and everyone else unhappy? And, since this is so, what can we do to change it to improve our own wellbeing and that of others?

These two questions initiated the psychological dimension of the science of meditation, or the science of the mind.

The early contemplatives realized that the human mind is the seat of our dispositions, our choices, our experiences, and ultimately our state and wellbeing. They understood that wellbeing depends on the choices we make in life, how we respond to situations and other people, and the way we manage adversity. They examined how the mind interacts with the senses, how the senses take in impressions of the world, how our emotions are stirred, and how our consciousness and subconsciousness are affected by our ways of responding, thinking, and behaving.

The contemplative traditions all agree that the real culprits are misapprehension about what is real and unreal, good and bad, wise and unwise; the ego-centeredness which dominates our thinking and behaviour; our desire for power, possessions, and pleasure; and our unbridled emotions that tend to lead us into trouble.

To liberate ourselves from these negative human trends, which in the worst case may push us into a downward existential spiral, the advice given by the contemplative traditions, from the ancient sages of India to the saintly contemplatives of medieval Christianity to the contemporary meditative system of Heartfulness, may be summarized into the following five elements of a meditative and contemplative path:

1. Meditation and prayer enable us to discover the profound stillness and harmony within, in our own hearts. This must be aided by purification which empties the mind and subconsciousness of accumulated impurities. Devotion towards transcendent Reality, or Divinity, deepens the condition.

2. Centering and recollection preserve the inner balance gained through meditation. It involves abiding in the innermost Self amid the world’s turbulence and stress while maintaining an awareness of transcendent Reality. The condition is aided by contemplation and love.

3. Regulating the mind and nourishing positive attitudes help us to avoid anxiety, fear, and dissatisfaction, and pitfalls such as anger, envy, unbridled desire, laziness, etc. This is usually done by cultivating positive attitudes such as forbearance, generosity, acceptance, tolerance, gratitude, humility, etc. Wisdom is the jewel of a balanced and well-regulated mind. Wisdom supports points 4 and 5 below.

4. Good communication and relations are essential for our peace of mind and the wellbeing of our fellow human beings. Faulty and ego-centered communication is the cause of many, if not most, of our troubles and worries. Equanimity, empathy, respect for others, and loving-kindness give peace of mind and remove many obstacles on the spiritual path.

5. Lifestyle and behaviour should reflect the harmony and simplicity achieved in meditation and prayer. For progress on the path, one should act with wisdom and live a life of simplicity and moderation. For a spiritual seeker personal integrity must be impeccable, and he or she must pursue the highest standards of ethics.

What is Yoga?

The Bhagavad Gita (ca. 400 BC), one of the major classical works on Yoga, says:

He should know that the disunion (viyoga) of the union (samyoga) with suffering is what is called Yoga. This Yoga he should practice with determination and a cheerful mind.

Forsaking completely all desires which come from mental conception and curbing with the mind the multitude of sense-impressions from all around.

Gradually let him be still, unwavering in his understanding. With the mind abiding in the Self, he should not think of anything.

Whenever the mind, unsteady and flickering, stirs, then, restraining it he should guide it home into the Self.

For supreme happiness comes to the practitioner of Yoga (Yogi) whose mind is serene, whose passion is stilled, who, free from impurity, has become (one with) the Ultimate.

The practitioner of Yoga who thus, with impurity gone, is always united with the Self, easily attains infinite happiness through (his) connection with the Ultimate.

One whose self is in harmony through Yoga sees the same everywhere, the Self abiding in all beings and all beings (abiding) in the Self.

(Bhagavad Gita, VI, 23-29, transl. Gnaur, 2017, p. 176, with minor modifications)

The above verses express the quintessence of Yoga, i.e., to quiet the fluctuations of the mind through meditation and abide in the inner Self, or Atman. This connects you to the Ultimate, Brahman. It purifies you and helps you to become a harmonious, internally unified human being, which is the basis for happiness.

The last stanza highlights the ethical foundation of Yoga. An ethical outlook follows naturally from the unified state of mind attained through Yoga, a state in which you see unity everywhere and understand that you are one with all beings and must act accordingly, i.e., with compassion and empathy.

There is of course more to Yoga than this, the details of meditative and Yoga practices, how to regulate the mind, how to deal with life’s challenges, the adoption of a lifestyle which is conducive to wellbeing and spiritual growth. There is the whole science of Yoga, i.e., Yoga metaphysics, philosophy, psychology, and spiritual anatomy.

The Bhagavad Gita gives importance to how we ensure that our thoughts, speech, and actions reflect the inner serenity gained through meditation, and this is the key to fully understand the Yoga way of life.

*

The word “Yoga” originates from the verbal root Yuj in Sanskrit, which means to yoke together, originally in ancient times the cart, or chariot, to the yoke on the horses’ necks. By derivation the word came to mean “to connect.” In the context of meditation, Yoga thus means to connect through meditation the mind with the Self within and the Self within with the Ultimate. Therefore, often the word Yoga, in ancient literature like the Bhagavad Gita is synonymous with “meditation,” as the act of connecting to the Self within and to the Ultimate.

By further derivation “Yoga,” from “connection” came to mean unity, oneness, harmony, and other related terms, a set of associated meanings and grammatical forms which are played extensively with in the poetic verses of the Bhagavad Gita (see the chapter on the Gita in the following).

Yoga from this perspective incorporates the human body, bringing the body and the breathing into harmony with the Soul, or inner Self, by a series of bodily postures and exercises, and by this process promoting wellness and balancing the mind.

Subsequently, as in the Bhagavad Gita, the harmony of Yoga is extended from the individual to the world in which he or she lives and acts. So, Yoga also embraces one’s duty to people near and dear to you and to society in promoting a wider harmony and unity.

The result of the full process of Yoga is thus a totally unified wholeness and wellness of both the individual and society.

*

Development of Yoga and the contemplative traditions: a bird’s eye view

The oldest recorded testimony of meditative Yoga is in the Principal Upanishads (see the section on the Upanishads in the following) which were composed approximately 800-400 BC. But the origins of Yoga may be much older to judge from archeological evidence from the Indus Culture, which was at its peak around 2500 BC and faded out around 1500 BC.

Since the time of the Upanishads Yoga has continued to play a major role in the meditative orientation of the East. It has influenced different traditions and trends engaged in meditational practices, including Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The Bhagavad Gita and the other major classical work on Yoga, the Yoga Aphorisms of Patanjali, have never, since they were composed more than two thousand years ago, ceased to be a source of guidance and inspiration amongst seekers of the Ultimate.

Yoga is an important element in Buddhism. This is a vast subject. But an illustration is Zen Buddhism, with its emphasis on meditation and a meditative lifestyle. The great Buddhist Yogi of Tibet, Milarepa, and his successors, applied a variety of yogic techniques in their meditative practices. The philosophy of Buddhism, especially when it comes to the psychological elements, has much in common with the science of the human mind, which is at the heart of classical Yoga philosophy.

The Vedanta, the ancient meditative philosophy based on the Upanishads and systematized by the brilliant philosopher Shankara around 700 A D is associated with the Yoga tradition and applies the term Yoga in connection with meditation.

Yoga has incorporated much of the Vedanta philosophy derived from the Upanishads. An example is the 4 states of waking, sleep, deep sleep, and the transcendent state of Turiya, or the fourth state. Also the concept of the 3 bodies, i.e., the casual body (soul), the subtle body (mind) and the gross body (the physical body), have roots in Vedanta philosophy.

Love and devotion became integrated aspects of Yoga with the Bhagavad Gita. Later, Yoga was influenced by other devotional trends, including Sufism that came to India with the Muslims in the 10th century and is renowned today for its inspiring poetry. In the devotional traditions of India, the songs of Mirabai and the profound poetry of Kabir are still widely popular. The following poem is in Tagore’s lyrical translation:

Tell me, O Swan, your ancient tale. From what land do you come, O Swan? To what shore will you fly? Where would you take your rest, O Swan, and what do you seek?

Even this morning, O Swan, awake, arise, follow me! There is a land where no doubt nor sorrow have rule: Where the terror of Death is no more.

There the woods of spring are a-bloom, and the fragrant scent “He is I” is born on the wind: There the bee of the heart is deeply immersed, and desires no other joy.

(Songs of Kabir, trans. Tagore, 1915/1988, pp. 55-56)

Meditative Yoga came to the West in the late nineteenth century with the great personality of Vivekananda, who was prolific in speaking and writing on the subject and something of a contemporary “media star.” Later, other disciples of Vivekananda’s Master, the Bengal sage Ramakrishna, and disciples of the disciples, followed in Vivekananda’s footsteps in bringing Yoga to the west.

The fascinating story of Ramakrishna and Vivekananda and other spiritual personalities associated with them is narrated in the literary masterpiece Ramakrishna and His Disciples by Christopher Isherwood (1965/86). The Biography of Vivekananda by Gautam Ghosh (2003) gives a sober account of Vivekananda’s life and travels. The bulk of Vivekananda’s extensive speeches, letters, writings, etc. which illustrate his wisdom, spiritual insight and vast knowledge is all contained in the Complete Works of Vivekananda, which is a source of infinite contemplative browsing through its many pages. Strongly recommended is Swami Vivekananda: Inspired Talks, based on speeches and dialogues during a retreat with Vivekanda and some of his disciples at Thousand Island Park in 1895.

Another renowned figure in popularizing Yoga in the West is Yogananda, who came to the US in the 1920’ties and whose book, the Autobiography of a Yogi, is a bestseller.

Amongst others one must mention the Yoga master, philosopher and poet Shri Aurobindo, who introduced “integral Yoga” and established a spiritual community at Pondicherry in South India; the sage Ramana Maharshi, a major figure in the Vedanta Yogic tradition, made famous worldwide through the books of Poul Brunton; Krishnamurti, whose approach is psychological-ethical and aligned to “Western” modes of thinking; and finally the Theosophical Society that did pioneering work in bringing Eastern spirituality in a broad perspective to the West. There are others whom it goes beyond this short book to delve into.

Over the last decades Buddhism has gained considerable popularity in the West. Zen Buddhism was popularized during the fifties and sixties by the Zen Master D.T. Suzuki, who wrote groundbreaking books on the subject. In recent years the Vietnamese Zen Master Thich Nhat Hann, with his message of love and peace, has exerted a considerable influence on meditative spirituality worldwide. And Tibetan Buddhism has become a global, meditative movement with Dalai Lama as a front figure.

Mindfulness, the ancient technique developed by the Buddha 2500 years ago as the seventh step of the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism, is now widely applied in wellness and lifestyle movements, in management, and as a focus of the science of meditation that we shall describe in a later chapter.

Heartfulness is in many respects a revival of the ancient classical Yoga of the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Aphorisms of Patanjali. Heartfulness’ emphasis on meditation on the heart reflects the Upanishads’ realization of the heart as the abode of the innermost Self. The yogic technique of transmission applied in Heartfulness also has ancient roots in the original Yoga tradition.

Heartfulness embodies significant elements of Vedanta and Sufism. But first and foremost, Heartfulness is based on the profound insights into human nature of its founder, Ram Chandra of Shahjahanpur, his spiritual “anatomy,” the perception of unity, ethics, and personal integrity as the foundation of life, and the awakening, through meditative practices, of the deeper aspirations of the heart for realization of the Ultimate.

*

The developments of Yoga in ancient India have parallel developments in China, Greece, Rome, and the Hellenistic world around the Eastern Mediterranean. In China the contemplative trend in Taoism, approximately contemporary in its origins with the Bhagavad Gita, with its humour and puzzling poetry and stories, was later absorbed into Chinese Chan- and Japanese Zen Buddhism.

Some of the ancient Chinese philosophers are noteworthy for their insights into the nature of love, the perception of unity and universal balance, and an attractive practical wisdom of life.

In Greece and Rome, the Stoics, who originated in Greece around 300 BC advocated a wisdom of life that has much in common with the “lifestyle” aspects of the classical Yoga tradition.

The Christian contemplative tradition has roots as far back as Plato (around 400 BC) and in the neo-platonic philosophy of Plotinus (active in Rome in the 3rd century), whose metaphysics are surprisingly like the Yoga Philosophy.

In the Neo-Platonic tradition, the Syrian Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite from around 500 AD introduced into Christian Mysticism the Via Negativa, the realization that God cannot be comprehended by words or concepts, is beyond everything, but can nevertheless be experienced. This approach to spirituality, the Zen of Christianity, had an enormous influence on the contemplative tradition in Europe. It is reflected in the sermons and treatises of the German mystic Meister Eckhart and in the English medieval Cloud of Unknowing, a sublime work which still inspires modern Christian contemplatives.

So does St. Francis of Assisi, who in a life of spiritual poverty, humility, and love for 800 years has been the archetype of the contemplative life. It is also true of the remarkable female contemplatives like St. Clara of Assisi, the close associate of St. Francis, Julian of Norwich, and Teresa of Avila.

Sufism, the contemplative tradition of Islam, is renowned throughout the world for its great poets like Rumi, Hafiz, Attar, Ibn al-Arabi, Amir Khusrau, and others. As a spiritual movement it is wide-ranging in approach, from the ascetism of desert anchorites to the humanism of an Ibn al Arabi of Andalusia, from the sophistication of its philosophers to the devotion and prayerful states of its mystics. In terms of geography, in its heyday it flourished from South-East Asia to Marocco and Spain and in terms of time from the eight’s century till today. Sufism was widespread in Northern India and has influenced the concepts, terminology, and imagery of Yoga and Heartfulness. It has a universal appeal to all seekers of the Ultimate as in the following verses by Rumi.

Those with mirror-like hearts have left behind mere fragrance and color: each moment they behold beauty without hindrance.

They have discarded the outer form and raised the banner of mystical intuition.

Thought is gone, all is light. They have reached the essence and the Ultimate source of knowledge.

(Masnavi I: 3489-94, Rumi, A Spiritual Treasury, ed. Juliet Mabey, 2000/2012, p. 96)

A note on terminology

We use the terms “meditative,” and “contemplative” interchangeably, although “meditative” has a closer reference to the act of meditating. “Contemplative” is often associated with “contemplative” Christianity, i.e., the modern expression for what earlier was called “Christian mysticism.” But there is an increasing trend to use it more broadly, which we follow here, as the term accurately conveys the essence of our subject in this book. In connection with the “traditions,” we mostly use “contemplative” which is broader than “meditative.”

We avoid terms like “schools,” “beliefs,” “persuasions,” “sects,” etc., as they tend to create division rather than unity. Instead, we apply the abovementioned term “traditions,” which is more open for commonalities, mutual influences, borrowings, and developments over time.

The terms “spiritual” and “spirituality” we use sparsely and with care in contexts where misunderstandings are not likely. This is because the terms today are used for almost anything which is not physically tangible.

We also use the term “God” sparsely and mostly only in connection with the insights and experiences of specific contemplatives who apply the term themselves in their writings. The concept of “God” is tied up with belief-systems and religious sentiments. Over time it has been subject to controversies, dogmas and even prejudices leading it far away from its original spiritual meaning as being transcendent and the highest principle for a fulfilled human life. Instead, we apply terms like transcendent Reality, highest Reality, the Ultimate, or the Infinite, terms which we use interchangeably.

Many today have a perception of Yoga as comprising physical exercises, bodily postures, and breathing exercises with short sessions of meditation added to it. But originally Yoga was an advanced, and possibly the earliest, system of meditation, while the more physical elements were added later. On the following pages we use the terms “classical Yoga,” or “meditative Yoga” for the latter, original form of Yoga. Sometimes the term “Raja Yoga” is applied for the same. In Heartfulness today, which, as mentioned earlier, to a large extent is a revival of the ancient Classical Yoga, the different facets of Yoga, soul, mind and body, are now combined.

Finally, about the use of terms associated with the “philosophy” of contemplative traditions such as Yoga: for a better understanding, it must be acknowledged that this is not philosophy in the usual sense. It is based not on logic or thinking, but on intuition, insights and realizations gained in deep meditation by sages, saints, yogis, contemplatives and advanced meditators over the last 3000 years. Its main purpose is to establish a common framework for communication on a subject which otherwise is beyond words and conceptualization.

Words are needed to explain what meditation and a contemplative life is about, to remove doubt, to inspire, for the teacher to guide seekers, for self-reflection, and to express stages and conditions.

In this book besides “philosophy” we use terms such as “cosmology,” “metaphysics,” “spiritual psychology,” “spiritual anatomy,” “contemplative science,” and the “science of Yoga or the mind.” While none of these exactly hit the mark, contemplative philosophy is an amalgamation of all of them. Perhaps we could claim that “spiritual philosophy,” or “contemplative philosophy,” is a discipline in its own right, it is what it is and doesn’t need to be confined within any other “box.”

When I, as the writer of the book, refer to myself, in a few cases, when it is appropriate to be more personal in my address to the reader and to “jump” outside the main current of the text, I may say “I.” To be more formal within the flow of a chapter I use the noun “author.” But in most cases I say “we,” with reference to myself, to all those with whom I have been in dialogue about the subject of contemplative traditions, and to the many writers and translators who are engaged in the same subject, some of whom I refer to in this book. I feel “we,” all of us, are a team, even if unknowingly, who in one way or the other have contributed to the book. Therefore, “we” come naturally.

*

The meditative and contemplative developments over the last 5000 years are like a huge tree with a trunk, big branches, small branches, twigs, and leaves. But even the leaves connect to the big branches and the trunk. For overview, briefness and to avoid confusion I have tried to stick to the trunk and the big branches. For instance, there is a multitude of methods, teachers, schools, orientations, etc. associated with Yoga. We cannot describe all of these. Therefore, our focus is on the mainstream classical Yoga tradition, which is one of the big branches, and which culminates in the 20th and 21st century revival of meditative, or Raja, Yoga, including Heartfulness. The same applies to the other contemplative traditions covered by this book.

A note on the quotations, sources, and translation

The quotations of poems and texts that we use to present original works and illustrate some of the points we make are all picked from among the best available and commonly recognized sources and translations.

A critical reader will observe that many of my references and sources, especially on the Vedas, Upanishads, and Vedanta, are from older publications. These are the works of distinguished humanistic scholars from early in the 20th century. They go into greater depths of their subjects and are more detailed than most contemporary books. I also find that on these subjects, there are not many new discoveries of general interest, so their observations are still valid. They are basically the books from which my own overall knowledge from my early studies derives, so even when they are no direct references to or quotations from them, I am profoundly indebted to them.

This also applies to the two scholars on Sufism, Raynold A. Nicholson and A.J. Arberry. Although many books have been written about Sufism since their time and there are many new translations of especially the poetry of Rumi, I still find that the two, besides their academic credentials, have a sublime feeling for the subject which is inspiring, also today.

Translations, especially from Sanskrit, pose a challenge. During my time as a student of Indian literature I had an excellent command of the Sanskrit language. Now I have forgotten much, but nevertheless remember enough to evaluate the quality of translations of works quoted in this book. For people who do research and write on the subject there are excellent works available with word-by-word translations, options of translations, critical academic comments, references, etc.

In the case of the Bhagavad Gita, the main problem with even the best of the more than 100 translations into English is that none of them are able to capture all the qualities of this remarkable masterpiece, i.e., the philosophy, the spiritual depth and meditative quality, the poetic beauty, and the literary sophistication in the handling of themes, wordplays, use of grammatical forms, structure and so on. This is why in the choice of quotations I sometimes shift between different translations.

A second, and more serious, pitfall is that the translators in many cases belong to a Yoga- or meditation system of one kind or the other. They therefore impose their own beliefs and methods on the text which may distort it. This is in some instances the case with the Bhagavad Gita.

But it is particularly true of the Yoga Aphorisms of Patanjali, which is a core text for many Yoga systems. This is a pity. For the Yoga Aphorisms do not have the same complexity as the Gita, and there are good and reliable translations available, some of which we refer to in the respective chapter in the following.

As an illustration of the best possible kind of translation we can highlight Tagore’s translation of a selection of Kabir’s poems. This is a translation by one of the world’s greatest poets of the poetry of another of the world’s greatest poets. And in this case the translator has a profound understanding of what the poet conveys in this unique spiritual poetry.

Finally, I should mention that in some cases the breakdown of texts and verses into lines are mine and based on contents, context, sound, layout, etc.

Heartfulness and the author

My own knowledge and sources of inspiration extends to most of the big branches of the contemplative heritage that we referred to above. My own practical experience of meditation and a contemplative way of life, however, is from the meditative Yoga tradition of Heartfulness which I have practiced since 1972.