Teaching for Critical Thinking E-Book

Stephen D. Brookfield

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Seitenzahl: 437

Beschreibung

While notions of what constitutes critical thinking vary, educators, politicians, and employers all agree that critical thinking skills are necessary for well-educated citizens and a key capacity for successful employees. In Teaching for Critical Thinking, Stephen Brookfield explores how students learn to think critically and what methods teachers can use to help. In his engaging, conversational style, Brookfield establishes a basic protocol of critical thinking that focuses on students uncovering and checking assumptions, exploring alternative perspectives, and taking informed actions. The book fosters a shared understanding of critical thinking and helps all faculty adapt general principles to specific disciplinary contexts. Drawing on thousands of student testimonies, the book identifies the teaching methods and approaches that are most successful when teaching students to think, read, and write critically. Brookfield explains when to make critical thinking the classroom focus, how to encourage critical discussions, and ways to reach skeptical students. He outlines the basic components required when reviewing a text critically and shows how to give highly specific feedback. The book also addresses how to foster critical thinking across an institution, beginning with how it can be explained in syllabi and even integrated into strategic plans and institutional missions. Brookfield stresses the importance of teachers modeling critical thinking and demonstrates himself how to do this. Crammed with activities and techniques, this how-to guide is applicable in face-to-face, online, and hybrid classrooms of all sizes. Each exercise includes detailed instructions, examples from different academic disciplines, and guidance for when and how to best use each activity. Any reader will come away with a pedagogic tool kit of new ideas for classroom exercises, new approaches to designing course assignments, and new ways to assess students' ability to practice critical analysis.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Overview of the Book

Audience

Acknowledgments

About the Author

1 What Is Critical Thinking?

How Critical Thinking Saved My Life

Hunting Assumptions

So Exactly What Is Critical Thinking?

Why Should We Think Critically?

What Are the Different Kinds of Assumptions We Think Critically About?

Assumptions Are Rarely Right or Wrong—They Are Contextually Appropriate

Summary

2 Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines

What’s Common About Critical Thinking Across Disciplines

Five Critical Intellectual Traditions

Summary

3 How Critical Thinking Is Learned

Critical Thinking Is a Social Learning Process

How to Model Critical Thinking

Specific Experiences

Disorienting Dilemmas

An Incremental Process

Summary

4 Introducing Basic Protocols of Critical Thinking

Introducing Critical Thinking: Timing Is Everything

Building a Case for Critical Thinking

Voting on Teacher Assumption Inventories

Using Clickers and Hand Held Devices

Conducting a Scenario Analysis

Summary

5 Developing Critical Complexity

Intermediate Protocol 1: Crisis Decision Simulation

Intermediate Protocol 2: Critical Debate

Intermediate Protocol 3: Exemplars and Flaws

Intermediate Protocol 4: Quotes to Affirm and Challenge

Advanced Protocols

Critical Conversation Protocol

Summary

6 Reading and Writing Critically

Misunderstandings of Critical Reading

Components of a Critical Review of a Text

How to Teach Critical Writing

Summary

7 Integrating Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum

Beginning Systemically

Building a Case for Critical Thinking

Integrating Critical Thinking into Specific Course Assignments

Summary

8 Making Discussions Critical

What Does a Critical Discussion Look Like?

Discussion Exercises to Foster Critical Thinking

Critical Questioning Approaches

Summary

9 Misunderstandings, Challenges, and Risks

Misunderstandings of Critical Thinking

Challenges to Critical Thinking

Risks of Critical Thinking

Summary

10 Modeling Critical Thinking

Autobiographical Disclosure

Modeling Critical Thinking for Colleagues

Modeling Critical Thinking in Online Environments

The Risks of Modeling

Summary

References

Index

Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by Jossey-Bass

A Wiley Imprint

One Montgomery Street, Suite 1200, San Francisco, CA 94104-4594—www.josseybass.com

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax [phone], or on the Web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, 201-748-6011, fax [phone], or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Readers should be aware that Internet Web sites offered as citations and/or sources for further information may have changed or disappeared between the time this was written and when it is read.

Jossey-Bass books and products are available through most bookstores. To contact Jossey-Bass directly call our Customer Care Department within the U.S. at 800-956-7739, outside the U.S. at 317-572-3986, or fax [phone].

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Not all content that is available in standard print versions of this book may appear or be packaged in all book formats. If you have purchased a version of this book that did not include media that is referenced by or accompanies a standard print version, you may request this media by visiting http://booksupport.wiley.com. For more information about Wiley products, visit us at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Brookfield, Stephen.

 Teaching for critical thinking : tools and techniques to help students question their assumptions / Stephen D. Brookfield. – 1st ed.

p. cm. – (The Jossey-Bass Higher and adult education series)

 Includes bibliographical references and index.

 ISBN 978-0-470-88934-3 (hardback)

 ISBN 978-1-118-14670-5 (ebk.)

 ISBN 978-1-118-14671-2 (ebk.)

 ISBN 978-1-118-14672-9 (ebk.)

 1. Critical thinking. 2. Critical thinking–Study and teaching. 3. Psychology, Applied. I. Title.

 BF441.B7915 2012

 153.4'2–dc23

2011030030

Preface

For the last 30 years or so I have run numerous workshops at colleges and universities across the world on how to teach students to think more critically. At every campus I visit I hear many of the same laments. One is that students’ attention span has become so compressed in the digital age that the cognitive stamina needed to stick with an argument until you understand it from the inside, and the intellectual rigor needed to analyze its validity in a critical way, has all but disappeared. I hear that students don’t read books any more, that they don’t go to the library (or even know where it is on campus), that they’re gullible consumers of any conspiracy theory that gains traction on the Web, that they’re celebrity-obsessed, and that they refuse to pay attention in class unless the professor makes the class as “fun” as playing a computer game.

This is a pretty low estimate of students’ abilities. And I’m sure that in some cases it’s right. But it just doesn’t jive with the students I see organizing community projects, marching against the unilateral invasion of countries, or moving into long and heated arguments on Facebook. Neither does it compute with the fact that for many middle and high school students in the last decade, the biggest event in their year was the publication of a book. For many of my generation (I’m now in my 60s) a major early adolescent moment was a TV event—The Beatles on the Ed Sullivan Show. (I should point out that this was no big deal to me, since I had grown up in Liverpool and gone to the original Cavern Club as a kid.) For my own children’s generation, however, it was the publication of whatever was the latest installment in the Harry Potter series that was the moment of high significance. Now I know Harry Potter isn’t a text on macroeconomics or an explication of Heidegger, but it was astonishing to me to see pre-teens and adolescents, who supposedly couldn’t sit still to read much more than a sentence before lunging for a game controller, line up for hours to buy a book as soon as it was published, and then disappear for a day or two as they immersed themselves in it.

So if we are finding it difficult to get students to think critically, I think we need to look elsewhere than some supposed change in young people’s DNA whereby the gene determining intellectual rigor and stamina has apparently been supplanted by the need to purchase the latest game controller. Instead, we need to take a long, hard look at how critical thinking is explained and taught. Having worked with students at widely varying stages of educational preparedness—from adult nonreaders to precollege developmental students with a very poor grasp of reading and writing, right up to doctoral students at Harvard University—I have been struck by what is similar across these contexts in terms of how people learn to think critically, rather than with what is different. Differences exist, to be sure, in the level of materials that can be used, but the essential dynamics of how you sequence curricula incrementally to support the development of critical thinking remain the same. So, too, do the dynamics of teaching it; for example, a group of precollege, developmental students struggling to understand the simplest passage in a college orientation handbook, or a group of doctoral students struggling to comprehend Foucault, both look to their teachers to model a critical engagement with a text and to show how they also sometimes struggle to understand what an author is saying.

In Teaching for Critical Thinking I build on my last three decades of experience running workshops and courses on critical thinking to explore how students learn to think this way, and what teachers can do to help students develop this capacity. In writing the book I’m very aware (as I outline in Chapter Two) that notions of exactly what constitutes critical thinking vary significantly across disciplines. Of the different intellectual traditions informing this idea, it is the critical theory tradition that has had the biggest influence on me, followed by the tradition of American pragmatism. But I didn’t want to write a book that explored only how critical theory conceived of critical thinking. If you’re interested in reading my work in that area, The Power of Critical Theory: Liberating Adult Learning and Teaching (2004) and Radicalizing Learning: Adult Education for a Just World (coauthored with John D. Holst, 2010) both explore this territory.

I wrote this book as if the readership were the same as the typical group of faculty who show up to workshops I run at most campuses I visit. I usually have instructors attending from every disciplinary area and department represented in the school. Biologists are next to theologians, mechanical engineers next to women’s studies instructors, mathematicians next to romance language teachers, business educators next to art historians, and so on. In such an environment I have to be able to talk to people in a language that is generic enough to foster a shared understanding of critical thinking, and in a way that helps them adapt general principles to specific disciplinary contexts. There’s little point in running a workshop on critical thinking if no one can actually agree on what constitutes that kind of thinking, and if only a segment of the faculty thinks the workshop has any relevance for their discipline. So much of the early part of this book tries to establish some general protocols of what critical thinking is, and how it can be taught, that make sense across widely varying disciplinary areas.

I’ve tried to write this book in a personal, relaxed, conversational style. I’ve used contractions, written in the first person, and as much as possible I’ve tried to keep extensive bibliographic references to a minimum. Essentially, I’ve tried to write the book in the same tone that I would speak to a group of colleagues. As I wrote I tried to imagine I was having lunch or coffee with a group of college teachers from different disciplines, and I was trying to answer the questions they had about how to get their students to think critically. So if you want a book written in a third person manner in which the author’s biases and experiences are held in check and each point is extensively referenced, this is not the book for you. There are plenty of other texts out there that will be much more along the lines you seek. But if you want a text in which the author is engaged in a personal conversation with you, and academic jargon is put on the backburner and only used when absolutely necessary, then I hope this will meet that description.

Whenever I go to any professional development activity, I always feel my time has been well spent if I’ve learned something new I can try with my students. That’s the spirit in which this book is written. I’ve tried to cram into its pages as many practical activities, exercises, protocols, techniques, and specific suggestions as I could. My assumption is that anyone who reads this will want to walk away with some new ideas about what they could do differently in their classrooms, or with some additional items in their pedagogic tool kit or back pack that they can try out the next time they meet with their students. If you see anything in here that might be helpful to you, please feel no compunction at all about stealing it and changing it so it makes better sense in your own classroom. The best teachers are good burglars, contextually attuned plunderers—they are always on the lookout for something they haven’t tried before that, with a few adaptations, will work with their students. If this book gives you a few ideas you can steal and adapt then it will have been worth the effort in writing.

In the spirit of creative, contextually informed plundering let me also draw your attention to my home page: http://www.stephenbrookfield.com/Dr._Stephen_D._Brookfield/Home.html. I’ve put pretty much all my classroom exercises up online for free download on that home page. Just go to the Workshop Materials link and scroll down the various PDF files and PowerPoint presentations and you’ll find any number of exercises and activities contained there. If you see something that looks helpful—grab it with my blessing! That’s why I’ve put it up there.

Overview of the Book

The book opens with an attempt in Chapter One to outline a basic protocol of critical thinking as a learning process that focuses on uncovering and checking assumptions, exploring alternative perspectives, and taking informed actions as a result. I explain three different categories of assumptions—paradigmatic, prescriptive, and causal—and I argue that assumptions are rarely universally right or wrong, but that they are more or less contextually appropriate. Throughout the chapter I try to draw on my own experience of using critical thinking to help me deal with clinical depression as a way of concretizing what can sometimes be an abstract idea.

Chapter Two then looks more closely at the different intellectual traditions informing the idea of critical thinking. One of the problems in holding conversations with colleagues about how to get students to think more critically is that different conceptions of what critical thinking looks like are held by teachers in different disciplines. I explore five different interpretations of this idea framed by, in turn, analytic philosophy and logic, the hypothetical-deductive method in the natural sciences, pragmatism, psychoanalysis, and critical theory. Where possible, I try to show connections between these traditions and to argue that aspects of the basic protocol outlined in Chapter One can be found in all of them.

Attention turns in Chapter Three to a crucial question: what do students say are the teaching methods and approaches that most help them learn to think critically? Drawing on thousands of student testimonies, many of which have been documented in students’ Critical Incident Questionnaires (CIQ), I identify five major themes that seem to hold true across different contexts for learning. These are (1) that critical thinking is best experienced as a social learning process, (2) that it is important for teachers to model the process for students, (3) that critical thinking is best understood when grounded in very specific events or experiences, (4) that some of the most effective triggers to critical thinking are having to deal with an unexpected event (or disorienting dilemma, as it is sometimes called), and (5) that learning critical thinking needs to be incrementally sequenced. Students like to learn to apply the process to relatively impersonal situations or data and then, slowly over time, bring the process to bear more and more on their own direct thinking.

What the opening steps of a critical thinking course or program might look like is outlined in Chapter Four. I look at when teaching critical thinking should be a focus, how to build a case for critical thinking to students who are skeptical about it, the use of clickers and hand held devices, and how to use the Scenario Analysis approach as a beginning exercise that can be adapted across disciplines. Chapter Five then looks at how to move to more complex critical thinking protocols such as Crisis Decision Simulation, Critical Debate, Exemplars and Flaws, and Quotes to Affirm and Challenge. It ends with a description of a highly complex exercise, the Critical Conversation Protocol.

In Chapter Six the focus shifts to how to encourage critical reading and writing. I try to dispel some common misconceptions about what it means to read critically, and then review what should be the basic components of a critical review of a text. These components are that (1) the student understands the text in the terms the author sets for it, (2) the student can conduct a critical analysis of it, and (3) the student can take a position regarding its relative merit in a field of inquiry. Each of these three components is then broken down to its constituent elements. The chapter then turns to how to teach students to write more critically. I explain how to give highly specific feedback to students, including the use of Color Coded Critical Feedback, the Hatful of Quotes exercise, the Peer Writing Protocol, and the role of faculty modeling. The chapter ends with me doing a critical appraisal of a couple of passages from one of my own books—Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher (1995)—to model for readers the same approach I am describing in the classroom.

One of the problems with making critical thinking a generic student behavior is that its implementation is spotty, varying from unit to unit, department to department, and school to school. In Chapter Seven I explore how to embed a general protocol of critical thinking across an institution. I begin by suggesting how a general definition of critical thinking can be crafted, and then examine what a Freshman Seminar on critical thinking might look like. I then return to the problem of how to build a case for critical thinking that was visited in Chapter Four, and this time I go into more depth about how this might be accomplished. I then look at how critical thinking can be incorporated into specific course assignments, how to introduce it in the syllabus, how to create connections between subject matter content and this kind of thinking, how to embed Critical Thinking Audits into assignments, and how to make such thinking part of the capstone experience.

Chapter Eight revisits in more depth the ways in which critical thinking is a social learning process, and it reviews ways in which typical classroom discussions can be conducted with a more critical edge. I outline what a critical discussion looks like and then look at some specific activities that can be crafted for critical thinking. These are the Circle of Voices, Circular Response, Chalk Talk, Spot the Error, Structured Silence, the Inferential Ladder, and the Appreciative Pause. The chapter ends with examples of discussion questions that encourage critical thinking, questions that uncover evidence, and questions that generate multiple perspectives.

The penultimate Chapter Nine pauses to review some of the most common misunderstandings of critical thinking, some challenges that have been issued to it, and some of the risks students experience when they try to learn it. Common misunderstandings are that being critical is the same as tearing something down or finding fault, that thinking critically leads to the paralysis of analysis, that it always involves fundamental change, that it’s the same as problem solving, and that it always has a clear outcome. Challenges I explore are those posed by a gender analysis where critical thinking is seen as a masculine doubting game, by cultural analysis that identifies the Eurocentric rationality preeminent in critical thinking, and by postmodern analysis that critiques the notion of using critical thinking to come to greater self-awareness. The risks students face are those of impostorship, cultural suicide, lost innocence, and road running, and each of these is reviewed. The chapter ends with another affirmation of the importance of peer learning communities to critical thinking.

In the final chapter (Chapter Ten) I return to a deeper examination of a theme that surfaces regularly through the book, the importance of teachers modeling for students their own engagement in critical thinking. I explore how this can be accomplished through the use of appropriate autobiographical examples, how criticality can be modeled for colleagues, what modeling looks like in an online environment, and the risks associated with modeling.

Audience

The chief audience for this book is teachers in a wide range of higher and adult education institutions—community colleges, four-year colleges, universities, vocational institutes, proprietary schools, online institutions—who are trying to get their students to think critically. I hope I have written in such a way that teachers in GED classrooms or in community colleges can find as much in here as teachers in elite private Ivy League institutions. I also think that trainers in a wide range of corporate and nonprofit organizations and professional developers in different workplace settings (the military, hospitals, churches, social work, early childhood development, community health) will be able to do some good creative adaptations of the exercises and activities described throughout the book. So really anyone who thinks that for part of their work they’re trying to get others to think critically about something should find something of interest in the book.

Acknowledgments

There are so many people who make a book what it is, and there’s no way I can thank them all. But first, I’d like to acknowledge the thousands of teachers and other human service professionals who’ve attended my workshops across the world and been gracious enough to fill out the Critical Incident Questionnaires I peppered them with, as well as asking such wonderfully unanswerable questions and recounting such wonderfully different experiences. In trying to respond to you I learned a great deal about teaching for critical thinking. I hope this book doesn’t embarrass you. Thanks, too, to the University of St. Thomas, and to Dr. Sue Huber in particular, for supporting me with the sabbatical time to write the bulk of this manuscript. There is nothing like waking up in the morning and knowing that the only thing you have to do that day is try and get your thoughts in order and then put them down on paper. For me it’s a luxury I always appreciate. The fact that I was able to be relaxed and conversational in this book is down to David Brightman at Jossey-Bass, an editor who always encouraged me to write personally to practitioners, rather than to impress fellow academics. And thanks to Suzanne Copenhagen for skillful copyediting that zipped the manuscript along.

More personal thanks are due to my various band mates in The 99ers (the world’s best punk/pop/rockabilly/surf band) over the period the book was written. The 99ers is my main creative outlet outside of academe, and if you’re ever in the Twin Cities you should stop by to see us play a gig. There’s nothing like smashing a power A-chord to make you forget about the complexities of critical thinking! So thanks to Molly Holley, Colin Selhurst, Chris Cave, Erik John, and Derek Kosky for giving me so many nights of pure musical fun. Finally, as always, thanks to the Rochester girl, Kim Miller, for being a partner through my life.

Stephen Brookfield

St. Paul, Minnesota

About the Author

The father of Molly and Colin, and the husband of Kim, Stephen D. Brookfield is currently Distinguished University Professor at the University of St. Thomas in Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota. He received his B.A. degree (1970) from Lanchester College of Technology (Coventry, UK) in modern studies, his M.A. degree (1974) from the University of Reading (UK) in sociology, and his Ph.D. degree (1980) from the University of Leicester (UK) in adult education. He also holds a postgraduate diploma (1971) from the University of London, Chelsea College (UK), in modern social and cultural studies and a postgraduate diploma (1977) from the University of Nottingham (UK) in adult education. In 1991 he was awarded an honorary doctor of letters degree from the University System of New Hampshire for his contributions to understanding adult learning. In 2003 he was awarded an honorary doctorate of letters from Concordia University for his contributions to adult education. In 2010 Muhlenberg College awarded him an honorary doctorate of letters for educational leadership in the scholarship of teaching.

Stephen began his teaching career in 1970 and has held appointments at colleges of further, technical, adult, and higher education in the United Kingdom, and at universities in Canada (University of British Columbia) and the United States (Columbia University, Teachers College and the University of St. Thomas). In 1989 he was Visiting Fellow at the Institute for Technical and Adult Teacher Education in what is now the University of Technology, Sydney, Australia. In 2002 he was Visiting Professor at Harvard University Graduate School of Education. During 2003–2004 he was the Helen Le Baron Hilton Chair at Iowa State University. He has run numerous workshops on teaching, adult learning, and critical thinking around the world and delivered many keynote addresses at regional, national, and international education conferences.

In 2001 he received the Leadership Award from the Association for Continuing Higher Education (ACHE) for “extraordinary contributions to the general field of continuing education on a national and international level.” In 2008 he received the University of St. Thomas John Ireland Presidential Award for Outstanding Achievement as a Teacher/Scholar, and also the University of St. Thomas Diversity Leadership Teaching and Research Award. Also in 2008 he was awarded the Morris T. Keeton Medal by the Council on Adult and Experiential Learning for “outstanding contributions to adult and experiential learning.” In 2009 he was inducted into the International Adult Education Hall of Fame.

He is a four-time winner of the Cyril O. Houle World Award for Literature in Adult Education: in 1986 for his book Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning: A Comprehensive Analysis of Principles and Effective Practices (1986), in 1989 for Developing Critical Thinkers: Challenging Adults to Explore Alternative Ways of Thinking and Acting (1987), in 1996 for Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher (1995), and in 2005 for The Power of Critical Theory: Liberating Adult Learning and Teaching (2004). Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning also won the 1986 Imogene E. Okes Award for Outstanding Research in Adult Education. These awards were all presented by the American Association for Adult and Continuing Education. The first edition of Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms (2nd ed., 2005), which he coauthored with Stephen Preskill, was a 1999 Critics Choice of the Educational Studies Association. His other books are Adult Learners, Adult Education, and the Community (1984), Self-Directed Learning: From Theory to Practice (1985), Learning Democracy: Eduard Lindeman on Adult Education and Social Change (1987), Training Educators of Adults: The Theory and Practice of Graduate Adult Education (1988), The Skillful Teacher: On Technique, Trust, and Responsiveness in the Classroom (2nd ed., 2006), Teaching Reflectively in Theological Contexts: Promises and Contradictions (coedited with Mary Hess, 2008), Learning as a Way of Leading: Lessons from the Struggle for Social Justice (coauthored with Stephen Preskill, 2008), Handbook of Race and Adult Education (coedited with Vanessa Sheared, Scipio Colin III, Elizabeth Peterson, and Juanita Johnson, 2010), and Radicalizing Learning: Adult Education for a Just World (coauthored with John D. Holst, 2010).

1

What Is Critical Thinking?

As a reader and a working classroom teacher I always appreciate a chapter, or even a book, that starts by telling me what I’m going to be reading in the next few pages. That way, if it’s of no interest to me I can skip it and spend my time doing something more useful or pleasurable (hopefully both). So let me begin this introduction by saying that in this chapter I want to introduce what I understand as the basic process of critical thinking. This entails (1) identifying the assumptions that frame our thinking and determine our actions, (2) checking out the degree to which these assumptions are accurate and valid, (3) looking at our ideas and decisions (intellectual, organizational, and personal) from several different perspectives, and (4) on the basis of all this, taking informed actions. I also propose a basic typology of different kinds of assumptions that critical thinking unearths and scrutinizes—paradigmatic, prescriptive, and causal.