Advanced English Grammar with Exercises E-Book

George Lyman Kittredge

• Herausgeber: Books on Demand
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2018

Beschreibung

This grammar is intended for students who have already received instruction in the rudiments. Still, every such textbook must begin at the beginning. Part One, therefore, which occupies pp. 1-24, gives a succinct treatment of the Parts of Speech in the Sentence and of their substitutes, the Phrase and the Clause, concluding with a Summary of Definitions. Thus it clears the way for what follows, and may be utilized as a review, if the student needs to refresh his memory. Part Two deals specifically and fully with Inflections and Syntax (pp. 25-182). It includes also a chapter on the use of subordinate clauses as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (pp. 157-162), as well as a chapter in which such clauses are logically classified in accordance with their particular offices in the expression of thought (pp. 163-182). Part Three (pp. 183-226) develops the subject of Analysis in its natural order, first explaining how sentences are put together, and then illustrating the process by which they may be resolved into their constituent parts. Modifiers and Complements are classified, and the so-called Independent Elements are discussed. There is added a special chapter on Combinations of Clauses, in which the grammatical and logical relations of coordination and subordination are set forth, and their functions in the effective use of language are considered. This portion of the book, it is hoped, will be especially useful to students of English composition. The Appendix furnishes lists of verbs, tables of conjugation, rules for capitals and marks of punctuation, a summary of important rules of syntax, and a brief history of the English language. The Exercises (pp. 227-290) are collected at the end of the text, so as not to break continuity.

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George Lyman Kittredge

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Table of contents

PREFACE

INTRODUCTION

LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR

PART ONE THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE SENTENCE

THE SENTENCE

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

SUBSTITUTES FOR PARTS OF SPEECH

SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS

PART TWO INFLECTION AND SYNTAX

CHAPTER I INFLECTION

CHAPTER II NOUNS

INFLECTION OF NOUNS

CHAPTER III PRONOUNS

CHAPTER IV ADJECTIVES

CHAPTER V ADVERBS

CHAPTER VI VERBS

CHAPTER VII PREPOSITIONS

CHAPTER VIII CONJUNCTIONS

CHAPTER IX INTERJECTIONS

CHAPTER X CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH

CHAPTER XI THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

PART THREE ANALYSIS

CHAPTER I THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES

CHAPTER II ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

CHAPTER III MODIFIERS

CHAPTER IV COMPLEMENTS

CHAPTER V MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS AND OF MODIFIERS

CHAPTER VI INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS

CHAPTER VII COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES

CHAPTER VIII ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES

EXERCISES

APPENDIX

FOOTNOTES

PREFACE

This grammar is intended for students who have already received instruction in the rudiments. Still, every such textbook must begin at the beginning. Part One, therefore, which occupies pp. 1–24, gives a succinct treatment of the Parts of Speech in the Sentence and of their substitutes, the Phrase and the Clause, concluding with a Summary of Definitions. Thus it clears the way for what follows, and may be utilized as a review, if the student needs to refresh his memory. Part Two deals specifically and fully with Inflections and Syntax (pp. 25–182). It includes also a chapter on the use of subordinate clauses as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (pp. 157–162), as well as a chapter in which such clauses are logically classified in accordance with their particular offices in the expression of thought (pp. 163–182). Part Three (pp. 183–226) develops the subject of Analysis in its natural order, first explaining how sentences are put together, and then illustrating the process by which they may be resolved into their constituent parts. Modifiers and Complements are classified, and the so-called Independent Elements are discussed. There is added a special chapter on Combinations of Clauses, in which the grammatical and logical relations of coordination and subordination are set forth, and their functions in the effective use of language are considered. This portion of the book, it is hoped, will be especially useful to students of English composition. The Appendix furnishes lists of verbs, tables of conjugation, rules for capitals and marks of punctuation, a summary of important rules of syntax, and a brief history of the English language. The Exercises (pp. 227–290) are collected at the end of the text, so as not to break continuity. References prefixed to each, as well as page-numbers in the Table of Contents, enable the teacher to attach them, at will, to the topics which they concern. The passages for parsing, analysis, etc., have been carefully selected from a wide range of eminent British and American writers. The name of the author is often appended to the quotation, when the passage is particularly noteworthy either for its contents or its form. In most cases, however, this has not been done; but the student may always feel confident that he is occupying himself with specimens of English as actually composed by distinguished authors. The constructive exercises call particular attention to those matters in which error is especially prevalent. An advanced grammar must aim to be serviceable in two ways. It should afford the means for continuous and systematic study of the subject or of any part of it; and it should also be useful for reference in connection with the study of composition and of literature. With this latter end in view, many notes and observations have been included, in smaller type, to show the nature and development of the various forms and constructions, and to point out differences between the usage of to-day and that which the student observes in Shakspere and other English classics. The fulness of the index makes it easy to find anything that the volume contains. In accordance with the desire of many teachers, certain topics of importance have been treated with unusual thoroughness. Among these may be mentioned the uses of shall and will, should and would, the infinitive and the infinitive clause, conditional sentences, indirect discourse, and the combination of clauses in sentences of different kinds. The authors are indebted to several teachers for suggestions and criticism. Particular acknowledgment is due to Mr. Theodore C. Mitchill, of the Jamaica High School, New York, and Mr. C. L. Hooper, of the Chicago Normal School.

INTRODUCTION

LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR

I. The Nature of Language Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words. The English word language comes (through the French langue) from the Latin lingua, “the tongue.” But the tongue is not the only organ used in speaking. The lips, the teeth, the roof of the mouth, the soft palate (or uvula), the nose, and the vocal chords all help to produce the sounds of which language consists. These various organs make up one delicate and complicated piece of mechanism upon which the breath of the speaker acts like that of a musician upon a clarinet or other wind instrument. Spoken language, then, is composed of a great variety of sounds made with the vocal organs. A word may consist of one sound (as Ah! or O or I), but most words consist of two or more different sounds (as go, see, try, finish). Long or short, however, a word is merely a sign made to express thought. Thought may be imperfectly expressed by signs made with the head, the hands, etc. Thus, if I grasp a person’s arm and point to a dog, he may understand me to ask, “Do you see that dog?” And his nod in reply may stand for “Yes, I see him.” But any dialogue carried on in this way must be both fragmentary and uncertain. To express our thoughts fully, freely, and accurately, we must use words,—that is, signs made with the voice. Such voice-signs have had meanings associated with them by custom or tradition, so that their sense is at once understood by all. Their advantage is twofold: they are far more numerous and varied than other signs; and the meanings attached to them are much more definite than those of nods and gestures. Written words are signs made with the pen to represent and recall to the mind the spoken words (or voice-signs). Written language (that is, composition) must, of necessity, be somewhat fuller than spoken language, as well as more formal and exact. For the reader’s understanding is not assisted by the tones of the voice, the changing expressions of the face, and the lively gestures, which help to make spoken language intelligible. Most words are the signs of definite ideas. Thus, Charles, captain, cat, mouse, bread, stone, cup, ink, call up images or pictures of persons or things; strike, dive, climb, dismount, express particular kinds of action; green, blue, careless, rocky, triangular, muscular, enable us to describe objects with accuracy. Even general terms like goodness, truth, courage, cowardice, generosity, have sufficiently precise meanings, for they name qualities, or traits of character, with which everybody is familiar. By the use of such words, even when not combined in groups, we can express our thoughts much more satisfactorily than by mere gestures. The utterance of the single word “Charles!” may signify: “Hullo, Charles! are you here? I am surprised to see you.” “Bread!” may suggest to the hearer: “Give me bread! I am very hungry.” “Courage!” may be almost equivalent to, “Don’t be down-hearted! Your troubles will soon be over.” Language, however, is not confined to the utterance of single words. To express our thoughts we must put words together,—we must combine them into groups; and such groups have settled meanings (just as words have), established (like the meanings of single words) by the customs or habits of the particular language that we are speaking or writing. Further, these groups are not thrown together haphazard. We must construct them in accordance with certain fixed rules. Otherwise we shall fail to express ourselves clearly and acceptably, and we may even succeed in saying the opposite of what we mean. In constructing these groups (which we call phrases, clauses, and sentences) we have the aid of a large number of short words like and, if, by, to, in, is, was, which are very different from the definite and picturesque words that we have just examined. They do not call up distinct images in the mind, and we should find it hard to define any of them. Yet their importance in the expression of thought is clear; for they serve to join other words together, and to show their relation to each other in those groups which make up connected speech. Thus, “box heavy” conveys some meaning; but “The box is heavy” is a clear and definite statement. The shows that some particular box is meant, and is enables us to make an assertion about it. And, in “Charles and John are my brothers,” indicates that Charles and John are closely connected in my thought, and that what I say of one applies also to the other. If, in “If Charles comes, I shall be glad to see him,” connects two statements, and shows that one of them is a mere supposition (for Charles may or may not come). In grouping words, our language has three different ways of indicating their relations: (1) the forms of the words themselves; (2) their order; (3) the use of little words like and, if, is, etc. I. Change of form. Words may change their form. Thus the word boy becomes boys when more than one is meant; kill becomes killed when past time is referred to; was becomes were when we are speaking of two or more persons or things; fast becomes faster when a higher degree of speed is indicated. Such change of form is called inflection, and the word is said to be inflected. Inflection is an important means of showing the relations of words in connected speech. In “Henry’s racket weighs fourteen ounces,” the form Henry’s shows at once the relation between Henry and the racket,—namely, that Henry owns or possesses it. The word Henry, then, may change its form to Henry’s to indicate ownership or possession. II. Order of words. In “John struck Charles,” the way in which the words are arranged shows who it was that struck, and who received the blow. Change the order of words to “Charles struck John,” and the meaning is reversed. It is, then, the order that shows the relation of John to struck, and of struck to Charles. III. Use of other words. Compare the two sentences: The train from Boston has just arrived. The train for Boston has just arrived. Here from and for show the relation between the train and Boston. “The Boston train” might mean either the train from Boston or the train for Boston. By using from or for we make the sense unmistakable. Two matters, then, are of vital importance in language,—the forms of words, and the relations of words. The science which treats of these two matters is called grammar. Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change in its meaning. The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence is called its construction. Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions of words. Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions of words. Grammar, then, may be said to concern itself with two main subjects,—inflection and syntax. English belongs to a family of languages—the Indo-European Family1—which is rich in forms of inflection. This richness may be seen in other members of the family,—such as Greek or Latin. The Latin word homo, “man,” for example, has eight different inflectional forms,—homo, “a man”; hominis, “of a man”; homini, “to a man,” and so on. Thus, in Latin, the grammatical construction of a word is, in general, shown by that particular inflectional ending (or termination) which it has in any particular sentence. In the Anglo-Saxon period,2 English was likewise well furnished with such inflectional endings, though not so abundantly as Latin. Many of these, however, had disappeared by Chaucer’s time (1340–1400), and still others have since been lost, so that modern English is one of the least inflected of languages. Such losses are not to be lamented. By due attention to the order of words, and by using of, to, for, from, in, and the like, we can express all the relations denoted by the ancient inflections. The gain in simplicity is enormous. II. Grammar and Usage Since language is the expression of thought, the rules of grammar agree, in the main, with the laws of thought. In other words, grammar is usually logical,—that is, its rules accord, in general, with the principles of logic, which is the science of exact reasoning. The rules of grammar, however, do not derive their authority from logic, but from good usage,—that is, from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers and writers. These customs, of course, differ among different nations, and every language has therefore its own stock of peculiar constructions or turns of expression. Such peculiarities are called idioms. Thus, in English we say, “It is I”; but in French the idiom is “C’est moi,” which corresponds to “It is me.” Many careless speakers of English follow the French idiom in this particular, but their practice has not yet come to be the accepted usage. Hence, though “C’est moi” is correct in French, we must still regard “It is me” as ungrammatical in English. It would, however, become correct if it should ever be adopted by the great majority of educated persons. Grammar does not enact laws for the conduct of speech. Its business is to ascertain and set forth those customs of language which have the sanction of good usage. If good usage changes, the rules of grammar must change. If two forms or constructions are in good use, the grammarian must admit them both. Occasionally, also, there is room for difference of opinion. These facts, however, do not lessen the authority of grammar in the case of any cultivated language. For in such a language usage is so well settled in almost every particular as to enable the grammarian to say positively what is right and what is wrong. Even in matters of divided usage, it is seldom difficult to determine which of two forms or constructions is preferred by careful writers. Every language has two standards of usage,—the colloquial and the literary. By “colloquial language,” we mean the language of conversation; by “literary language,” that employed in literary composition. Everyday colloquial English admits many words, forms, phrases, and constructions that would be out of place in a dignified essay. On the other hand, it is an error in taste to be always “talking like a book.” Unpractised speakers and writers should, however, be conservative. They should avoid, even in informal talk, any word or expression that is of doubtful propriety. Only those who know what they are about, can venture to take liberties. It is quite possible to be correct without being stilted or affected.3 Every living language is constantly changing. Words, forms, and constructions become obsolete (that is, go out of use) and others take their places. Consequently, one often notes in the older English classics, methods of expression which, though formerly correct, are ungrammatical now. Here a twofold caution is necessary. On the one hand, we must not criticise Shakspere or Chaucer for using the English of his own time; but, on the other hand, we must not try to defend our own errors by appealing to ancient usage. Examples of constructions once in good use, but no longer admissible, are: “the best of the two” (for “the better of the two”); “the most unkindest cut of all”; “There’s two or three of us” (for there are); “I have forgot the map” (for forgotten); “Every one of these letters are in my name” (for is); “I think it be” (for is). The language of poetry admits many old words, forms, and constructions that are no longer used in ordinary prose. These are called archaisms (that is, ancient expressions). Among the commonest archaisms are thou, ye, hath, thinkest, doth. Such forms are also common in prose, in what is known as the solemn style, which is modelled, in great part, on the language of the Bible.4 In general, it should be remembered that the style which one uses should be appropriate,—that is, it should fit the occasion. A short story and a scientific exposition will differ in style; a familiar letter will naturally shun the formalities of business or legal correspondence. Good style is not a necessary result of grammatical correctness, but without such correctness it is, of course, impossible. SUMMARY OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES 1. Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words. 2. Words are the signs of ideas. Spoken words are signs made with the vocal organs; written words are signs made with the pen to represent the spoken words. The meanings of these signs are settled by custom or tradition in each language. 3. Most words are the signs of definite ideas: as,—Charles, captain, cat, strike, dive, climb, triangular, careless. Other words, of less definite meaning, serve to connect the more definite words and to show their relations to each other in connected speech. 4. In the expression of thought, words are combined into groups called phrases, clauses, and sentences. 5. The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence is called its construction. The construction of English words is shown in three ways: (1) by their form; (2) by their order; (3) by the use of other words like to, from, is, etc. 6. Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change in its meaning: as,—boy, boy’s; man, men; drink, drank. 7. Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions of words. Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions of words. 8. The rules of grammar derive their authority from good usage,—that is, from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers and writers.

PART ONE THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE SENTENCE

THE SENTENCE

1. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought. Fire burns. Wolves howl. Rain is falling. Charles is courageous. Patient effort removes mountains. London is the largest city in the world. A man who respects himself should never condescend to use slovenly language. Some of these sentences are short, expressing a very simple thought; others are comparatively long, because the thought is more complicated and therefore requires more words for its expression. But every one of them, whether short or long, is complete in itself. It comes to a definite end, and is followed by a full pause. 2. Every sentence, whether short or long, consists of two parts,—a subject and a predicate. The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that is spoken of; the predicate is that which is said of the subject. Thus, in the first example in § 1, the subject is fire and the predicate is burns. In the third, the subject is rain; the predicate, is falling. In the last, the subject is a man who respects himself; the predicate, should never condescend to use slovenly language. Either the subject or the predicate may consist of a single word or of a number of words. But neither the subject by itself nor the predicate by itself, however extended, is a sentence. The mere mention of a thing (fire) does not express a complete thought. Neither does a mere assertion (burns), if we neglect to mention the person or thing about which the assertion is made. Thus it appears that both a subject and a predicate are necessary to make a sentence. 3. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. 1. A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact. Dickens wrote “David Copperfield.” The army approached the city. 2. An interrogative sentence asks a question. Who is that officer? Does Arthur Moore live here? 3. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request. Open the window. Pronounce the vowels more distinctly. 4. An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry. How calm the sea is! What a noise the engine makes! A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence is also exclamatory, if it is uttered in an intense or excited tone of voice. 4. In imperative sentences, the subject (thou or you) is almost always omitted, because it is understood by both speaker and hearer without being expressed. Such omitted words, which are present (in idea) to the minds of both speaker and hearer, are said to be “understood.” Thus, in “Open the window,” the subject is “you (understood).” If expressed, the subject would be emphatic: as,—“You open the window.” 5. The subject of a sentence commonly precedes the predicate, but sometimes the predicate precedes. Here comes Tom. Next came Edward. Over went the carriage. A sentence in which the predicate precedes the subject is said to be in the inverted order. This order is especially common in interrogative sentences. Where is your boat? When was your last birthday? Whither wander you?—Shakspere.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

6. If we examine the words in any sentence, we observe that they have different tasks or duties to perform in the expression of thought. Savage beasts roamed through the forest. In this sentence, beasts and forest are the names of objects; roamed asserts action, telling us what the beasts did; savage describes the beasts; through shows the relation in thought between forest and roamed; the limits the meaning of forest, showing that one particular forest is meant. Thus each of these words has its special office (or function) in the sentence. 7. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech,—namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. I. NOUNS 8. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. Examples: Lincoln, William, Elizabeth, sister, engineer, Chicago, island, shelf, star, window, happiness, anger, sidewalk, courage, loss, song. II. PRONOUNS 9. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it. In “I am ready,” the pronoun I is a convenient substitute for the speaker’s name. In “You have forgotten your umbrella,” the pronouns you and your designate the person to whom one is speaking. Other pronouns are: he, his, him; she, hers, her; it, its; this, that; who, whose, whom, which; myself, yourself, himself, themselves. Since pronouns stand for nouns, they enable us to talk about a person, place, or thing without constantly repeating the name. 10. Nouns and pronouns are called substantives. Nouns and pronouns are very similar in their use. The difference between them is merely that the noun designates a person, place, or thing by naming it, and that the pronoun designates, but does not name. Hence it is convenient to have a general term (substantive) to include both these parts of speech. 11. The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent. Frank introduced the boys to his father. [Frank is the antecedent of the pronoun his.] Eleanor is visiting her aunt. The book has lost its cover. The trappers sat round their camp fire. Washington and Franklin served their country in different ways. [Their has two antecedents, connected by and.] III. ADJECTIVES 12. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.5 This it usually does by indicating some quality. An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits. 13. An adjective limits a substantive by restricting the range of its meaning. The noun box, for example, includes a great variety of objects. If we say wooden box, we exclude boxes of metal, of paper, etc. If we use a second adjective (small) and a third (square), we limit the size and the shape of the box. Most adjectives (like wooden, square, and small) describe as well as limit. Such words are called descriptive adjectives. We may, however, limit the noun box to a single specimen by means of the adjective this or that or the, which does not describe, but simply points out, or designates. Such words are called definitive adjectives.6 IV. VERBS 14. A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing.7 The wind blows. The horses ran. The fire blazed. Her jewels sparkled. Tom climbed a tree. The dynamite exploded. Some verbs express state or condition rather than action. The treaty still exists. The book lies on the table. Near the church stood an elm. My aunt suffers much from headache. 15. A group of words may be needed, instead of a single verb, to make an assertion. A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase. You will see. The tree has fallen. We might have invited her. Our driver has been discharged. 16. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is, “aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind. Thus, in “You will see,” the auxiliary verb will helps see to express future action; in “We might have invited her,” the auxiliaries might and have help invited to express action that was possible in past time. The auxiliary verbs are is (are, was, were, etc.), may, can, must, might, shall, will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did. Their forms and uses will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs. The auxiliary verb regularly comes first in a verb-phrase, and may be separated from the rest of it by some other word or words. Where was Washington born? The boat was slowly but steadily approaching. 17. Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject. 1. Gold is a metal. 2. Charles is my friend’s name. 3. The colors of this butterfly are brilliant. 4. Iron becomes red in the fire. 5. Our condition seemed desperate. 6. Bertram proved a good friend in this emergency. 7. My soul grows sad with troubles.—Shakspere. In the first sentence, the verb is not only makes an assertion, but it also connects the rest of the predicate (a metal) with the subject (gold) in such a way that a metal serves as a description or definition of gold. In sentences 4–7, becomes, seemed, proved, and grows are similarly used. In such sentences is and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called copulative (that is, “joining”) verbs. Is in this use is often called the copula, that is, the “joiner” or “link.” The forms of the verb is are very irregular. Among the commonest are: am, is, are, was, were, and the verb-phrases has been, have been, had been, shall be, will be.8 V. ADVERBS 18. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. To modify a word is to change or affect its meaning in some way. Thus in “The river fell rapidly,” the adverb rapidly modifies the verb fell by showing how the falling took place. In “I am never late,” “This is absolutely true,” “That is too bad,” the italicized words are adverbs modifying adjectives; in “He came very often,” “He spoke almost hopefully,” “The river fell too rapidly,” they are adverbs modifying other adverbs. Most adverbs answer the question “How?” “When?” “Where?” or “To what degree or extent?” 19. Observe that adverbs modify verbs in much the same way in which adjectives modify nouns. Adjectives Adverbs A bright fire burned. The fire burned brightly. A fierce wind blew. The wind blew fiercely. A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier. Adjectives and adverbs, then, are both modifiers. Adjectives modify substantives; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. VI. PREPOSITIONS 20. A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence. The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object. A preposition is said to govern its object. In “The surface of the water glistened,” of makes it clear that surface belongs with water. In “Philip is on the river,” on shows Philip’s position with respect to the river. In, or near, or beyond would have indicated a different relation. Water is the object of the preposition of, and river is the object of the preposition on. 21. A preposition often has more than one object. Over hill and dale he ran. He was filled with shame and despair. VII. CONJUNCTIONS 22. A conjunction connects words or groups of words. A conjunction differs from a preposition in having no object, and in indicating a less definite relation between the words which it connects. In “Time and tide wait for no man,” “The parcel was small but heavy,” “He wore a kind of doublet or jacket,” the conjunctions and, but, or, connect single words,—time with tide, small with heavy, doublet with jacket. In “Do not go if you are afraid,” “I came because you sent for me,” “Take my key, but do not lose it,” “Sweep the floor and dust the furniture,” each conjunction connects the entire group of words preceding it with the entire group following it. VIII. INTERJECTIONS 23. An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling. Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the groups of words in which they stand; hence their name, which means “thrown in.” Examples: Oh! I forgot. Ah, how I miss you! Bravo! Alas! THE SAME WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH 24. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs. The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another. Words of entirely separate origin, meaning, and use sometimes look and sound alike: as in “The minstrel sang a plaintive lay,” and “He lay on the ground.” But the following examples (§ 25) show that the same word may have more than one kind of grammatical office (or function). It is the meaning which we give to a word in the sentence that determines its classification as a part of speech. 25. The chief classes of words thus variously used are (1) nouns and adjectives, (2) nouns and verbs, (3) adjectives and adverbs, (4) adjectives and pronouns, (5) adverbs and prepositions. I. Nouns and Adjectives NounsAdjectivesRubber comes from South America.This wheel has a rubber tire.That brick is yellow.Here is a brick house.The rich have a grave responsibility.A rich merchant lives here.The first two examples show how words that are commonly nouns may be used as adjectives; the third shows how words that are commonly adjectives may be used as nouns. II. Nouns and Verbs NounsVerbsHear the wash of the tide.Wash those windows.Give me a stamp.Stamp this envelope.It is the call of the sea.Ye call me chief.Other examples are: act,address,ally,answer,boast,care,cause,close,defeat,doubt,drop,heap,hope,mark,offer,pile,place,rest,rule,sail,shape,sleep,spur,test,watch,wound.III. Adjectives and Adverbs AdjectivesAdverbsThat is a fast boat.The snow is melting fast.Draw a straight line.The arrow flew straight.Early comers get good seats.Tom awoke early.For an explanation of the form of these adverbs, see § 191. IV. Adjectives and Pronouns AdjectivesPronounsThis man looks unhappy.This is the sergeant.That book is a dictionary.That is a kangaroo.Each day brings its opportunity.I received a dollar from each.For further study of this class of words, see pp 62-65. V. Adverbs and Prepositions AdverbsPrepositionsJill came tumbling after.He returned after the accident.We went below.Below us lay the valley.The weeds sprang up.We walked up the hill.Other examples are: aboard,before,beyond,down,inside,underneath.Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following:— Noun. The calm lasted for three days. Adjective. Calm words show quiet minds. Verb. Calm your angry friend. Other examples are: iron, stone, paper, sugar, salt, bark, quiet, black, light, head, wet, round, square, winter, spring. Noun. Wrong seldom prospers. Adjective. You have taken the wrong road. Adverb. Edward often spells words wrong. Verb. You wrong me by your suspicions. Noun. The outside of the castle is gloomy. Adjective. We have an outside stateroom. Adverb. The messenger is waiting outside. Preposition. I shall ride outside the coach. Adjective. That boat is a sloop. Pronoun. That is my uncle. Conjunction. You said that you would help me. Adjective. Neither road leads to Utica. Pronoun. Neither of us arrived in time. Conjunction. Neither Tom nor I was late. Preposition. I am waiting for the train. Conjunction. You have plenty of time, for the train is late. Interjection. Hurrah! the battle is won. Noun. I heard a loud hurrah. Verb. The enemy flees. Our men hurrah. INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES 26. Two classes of verb-forms illustrate in a striking way the fact that the same word may belong to different parts of speech; for they really belong to two different parts of speech at one and the same time. These are the infinitive (which is both verb and noun) and the participle (which is both verb and adjective). 27. Examples of the infinitive may be seen in the following sentences: To struggle was useless. To escape is impossible. To exercise regularly preserves the health. To struggle is clearly a noun, for (1) it is the subject of the sentence, and (2) the noun effort or exertion might be put in the place of to struggle. Similarly, the noun escape might be substituted for to escape; and, in the third sentence, regular exercise (a noun modified by an adjective) might be substituted for to exercise regularly. But these three forms (to struggle, to escape, and to exercise) are also verbs, for they express action, and one of them (to exercise) is modified by an adverb (regularly). Such forms, therefore, are noun-forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs, and are called infinitives. 28. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the sign of the infinitive. 29. The infinitive without to is used in a great variety of verb-phrases. I shall go. John will win. Mary may recite. Jack can swim. Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs. Note. That go, win, recite, and swim are infinitives may be seen by comparing the following sentences:—“I intend to go,” “John is sure to win,” “Mary is permitted to recite,” “Jack is able to swim.” 30. The following sentence contains two participles:— Shattered and slowly sinking, the frigate drifted out to sea. In this sentence, we recognize shattered as a form of the verb shatter, and sinking as a form of the verb sink. They both express action, and sinking is modified by the adverb slowly. But shattered and sinking have also the nature of adjectives, for they are used to describe the noun frigate. Such words, then, are adjective forms of the verb. They are classed as verbs, and are called participles, because they share (or participate in) the nature of adjectives. 31. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive. A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits. 32. The chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles, so called from the time which they denote. All present participles end in ing. Past participles have several different endings, which will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs (§ 334). 33. Participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases. Tom is coming. Our boat was wrecked. I have sent the money. He has brought me a letter. Your book is found. They have sold their horses. You have broken your watch. The ship had struck on the reef. Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs. Note. The double nature of the infinitive (as both verb and noun) and the participle (as both verb and adjective) almost justifies one in classifying each as a distinct part of speech (so as to make ten parts of speech instead of eight). But it is more convenient to include them under the head of verbs, in accordance with the usual practice.

SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

34. Our survey of the eight parts of speech has shown, (1) that these have very different offices or functions in the sentence, and (2) that their functions are not of equal importance. Clearly, the most important parts of speech are substantives (nouns and pronouns) and verbs. Substantives enable us to name or designate persons, places, or things, and verbs enable us to make statements about them. Both substantives and verbs, then, are absolutely necessary in framing sentences. Without a substantive, there can be no subject; without a verb, there can be no predicate: and both a subject and a predicate, as we have seen, are needed to make a sentence. Adjectives and adverbs are less important than substantives and verbs. Their function is to modify other parts of speech, that is, to change their meaning in some way. Thus adjectives modify substantives (by describing or limiting), and adverbs usually modify verbs (by indicating how, when, or where the action took place). Without substantives, there would be no use for adjectives; without verbs, there would be little use for adverbs. Prepositions and conjunctions are also less important than substantives and verbs. Their office is to connect and to show relation. Of course, there would be no place for connectives if there were nothing to connect. Interjections are the least important of all. They add liveliness to language, but they are not actual necessities. We could express all the thoughts that enter our minds without ever using an interjection. 35. A sentence may consist of but two words,—a noun or pronoun (the subject) and a verb (the predicate). Thus,— Charles | swims. Commonly, however, either the subject or the predicate, or both, will contain more than one word. Thus,— Young Charles | swims slowly. Here the complete subject (young Charles) consists of a noun (Charles) and an adjective (young), which describes Charles. The complete predicate consists of a verb (swims) and an adverb (slowly), which modifies swim by indicating how the action is performed. The subject noun (Charles) and the predicate verb (swims) are the chief words in the sentence, for neither could be omitted without destroying it. They form, so to speak, the frame or skeleton of the whole. Either of the two modifiers, the adjective or the adverb, or both, might be omitted, without destroying the sentence; for this would still exist as the expression of a thought (Charles swims), though the thought would be less definite and exact than it is when the modifiers are included. 36. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun. The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase. The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete subject. The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete predicate. In each of the following sentences the complete subject and the complete predicate are separated by a vertical line, and the simple subject and the simple predicate are printed in italics:— The spider | spreads her web. The fiery smoke | rose upward in billowing volumes. A nameless unrest | urged me forward. Our frantic horses | swept round an angle of the road. The infirmities of age | came early upon him. The general feeling among the English in Bengal | was strongly in favor of the Governor General. Salutes | were fired from the batteries. The Clives | had been settled ever since the twelfth century on an estate of no great value near Market Drayton in Shropshire. I | have written repeatedly to Mr. Hobhouse. 37. Two or more simple subjects may be joined to make one compound subject, and two or more simple predicates to make one compound predicate. 1. Charles and Henry | play tennis well. 2. Moore and I | passed some merry days together. 3. Frances and she | are friends. 4. Hats, caps, boots, and gloves | were piled together in confusion. 5. The watch | sank and was lost. 6. The balloon | rose higher and higher and finally disappeared. 7. He | neither smiled nor frowned. 8. Snow and ice | covered the ground and made our progress difficult. 38. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions. Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound. In the first example in § 37, two simple subjects (Charles and Henry) are joined by the conjunction and to make a compound subject. In the fourth, four substantives (hats, caps, boots, gloves) form a series in which the last two are joined by and. In the fifth, sixth, and seventh, the predicates are compound; in the eighth, both the subject and the predicate. 39. The following conjunctions may be used to join the members of a compound subject or predicate: and (both ... and), or (either ... or; whether ... or), nor (neither ... nor).

SUBSTITUTES FOR PARTS OF SPEECH

PHRASES 40. A group of words may take the place of a part of speech The Father of Waters is the Mississippi. A girl with blue eyes stood at the window. You are looking well. The Father of Waters is used as a noun, since it names something. With blue eyes takes the place of an adjective (blue-eyed), and modifies girl. At the window indicates, as an adverb might, where the girl stood, and modifies stood. Are looking could be replaced by the verb look. 41. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a predicate, is called a phrase. A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech. 1. A phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase. 2. A phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase. 3. A phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase. 4. A phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase. In the examples in § 40, The Father of Waters is a noun-phrase; with blue eyes, an adjective phrase; at the window, an adverbial phrase; are looking, a verb-phrase. 42. Many adjective and adverbial phrases consist of a preposition and its object, with or without other words. Your umbrella is in the corner. He has a heart of oak. A cup with a broken handle stood on the shelf. My house of cards fell to the floor in a heap. Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional phrases. CLAUSES—COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES 43. Phrases must be carefully distinguished from clauses. The difference is that a clause contains a subject and a predicate and a phrase does not. 44. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate. The lightning flashed | and | the thunder roared. The train started | when the bell rang. Each of these sentences contains two clauses; but the relation between the clauses in the first sentence is very different from that between the clauses in the second. In the first example, each of the two clauses makes a separate and distinct statement, and might stand by itself as a simple sentence,—that is, as a sentence having but one subject and one predicate. These clauses are joined by the conjunction and, which is not a part of either. No doubt the speaker feels that there is some relation in thought between the two statements, or he would not have put them together as clauses in the same sentence. But there is nothing in the form of expression to show what that relation is. In other words, the two clauses are grammatically independent, for neither of them modifies (or affects the meaning of) the other. The clauses are therefore said to be coördinate,—that is, of the same “order” or rank, and the sentence is called compound. In the second example, on the contrary, the relation between the two clauses is indicated with precision. One clause (the train started) makes the main statement,—it expresses the chief fact. Hence it is called the main (or principal) clause. The other clause (when the bell rang) is added because the speaker wishes to modify the main verb (started) by defining the time of the action. This clause, then, is used as a part of speech. Its function is the same as that of an adverb (promptly) or an adverbial phrase (on the stroke of the bell). For this purpose alone it exists, and not as an independent statement. Hence it is called a dependent (or subordinate) clause, because it depends (that is, “hangs”) upon the main clause, and so occupies a lower or “subordinate” rank in the sentence. When thus constructed, a sentence is said to be complex. 45. An ordinary compound sentence (as we have seen in § 44) is made by joining two or more simple sentences, each of which thus becomes an independent coördinate clause. In the same way we may join two or more complex sentences, using them as clauses to make one compound sentence:— The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom watched until the last car disappeared. This sentence is manifestly compound, for it consists of two coördinate clauses (the train started when the bell rang; Tom watched until the last car disappeared) joined by and. Each of these two clauses is itself complex, for each could stand by itself as a complex sentence. Similarly, a complex and a simple sentence may be joined as coördinate clauses to make a compound sentence. The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom gazed after it in despair. Such a sentence, which is compound in its structure, but in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are complex, is called a compound complex sentence.9 46. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. All other clauses are said to be independent. Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coördinate. Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex. 1. A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound. 2. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coördinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions. 3. A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which is independent and the rest subordinate. A compound sentence in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are complex is called a compound complex sentence. I. Simple Sentences Iron rusts. George V is king. Dogs, foxes, and hares are quadrupeds. [Compound subject.] The defendant rose and addressed the court. [Compound predicate.] Merton and his men crossed the bridge and scaled the wall. [Both subject and predicate are compound.] II. Compound Sentences Shakspere was born in 1564; he died in 1616. [Two coördinate clauses; no conjunction.] A rifle cracked, and the wolf fell dead. [Two clauses joined by the conjunction and.] You must hurry, or we shall lose the train. [Two clauses joined by or.] James Watt did not invent the steam engine, but he greatly improved it. [Two clauses joined by but.] Either you have neglected to write or your letter has failed to reach me. [Two clauses joined by either ... or.] The following conjunctions may be used to join coördinate clauses: and (both ... and), or (either ... or), nor (neither ... nor), but, for. III. Complex Sentences Examples will be found in §§ 48–50. Clauses as Parts of Speech 47. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are used as parts of speech. They serve as substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs. 1. A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive) clause. 2. A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause. 3. A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause. 48. I. Noun (or Substantive) Clauses. {Success | That we should succeed in this plan} is improbable. The thought in these two sentences is the same, but in the second it is more fully expressed. In the first sentence, the subject is the noun success; in the second, the subject is the noun clause, that we should succeed in this plan. This clause is introduced by the conjunction that; the simple subject of the clause is the pronoun we, and the simple predicate is the verb-phrase should succeed. The first sentence is simple; the second is complex. Substantive clauses are often introduced by the conjunction that. 49. II. Adjective Clauses. The following sentences illustrate the use of (1) an adjective, (2) an adjective phrase, (3) an adjective clause, as a modifier of the subject noun. {An honorable man | A man of honor | A man who values his honor} will not lie. {A seasonable word | A word in season | A word that is spoken at the right moment} may save a soul. {My native land | The land of my birth | The land where I was born} lies far across the sea. The first two sentences in each group are simple, the third is complex. 50. III. Adverbial Clauses. The following sentences illustrate the use of (1) an adverb, (2) an adverbial phrase, (3) an adverbial clause, as a modifier of the predicate verb (or verb-phrase). The lightning struck {here. | on this spot. | where we stand.} Mr. Andrews lives {near. | in this neighborhood. | where you see that elm.} The game began {punctually. | on the stroke of one. | when the clock struck.} The banker will make the loan {conditionally. | on one condition. | if you endorse my note.} The first two sentences in each group are simple, the third is complex. 51. Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by the pronouns who, which, and that, or (2) by adverbs like where, whence, whither, when. Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by the adverbs where, whither, whence, when, while, before, after, until, how, as, or (2) by the conjunctions because, though, although, if, that (in order that, so that), lest, etc. Note. The use of phrases and clauses as parts of speech increases enormously the richness and power of language. Though English has a huge stock of words, it cannot provide a separate noun or adjective or adverb for every idea. By grouping words, however, in phrases and clauses we, in effect, make a great variety of new nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, each precisely fitted to the needs of the moment in the expression of thought.

SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS