Crown House WJEC Psychology E-Book

Nicola Taylor

• Herausgeber: Crown House Publishing
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

Edited by Nigel Holt and Rob Lewis, the authors of the hugely successful AS Level Psychology: The Student's Textbook (ISBN 9781845900939) and The Study Guide (ISBN 9781845900953), this new resource rigorously examines what students need to know for the WJEC psychology AS specification. The beautifully designed, easy-to-use textbook comprehensively covers all of the course material and offers exam hints and questions to aid study. The Crown House WJEC Psychology (A level) book will be available later in the year.

Leseprobe

AS Level

WJEC Psychology

Nicola Taylor and Kirsty White

Edited by Nigel Holt and Rob Lewis

Crown House Publishing

www.crownhouse.co.uk

contents

INTRODUCTION 5

UNIT 1. PSYCHOLOGY: PAST TO PRESENT

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH 8

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH 22

THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH 38

THE COGNITIVE APPROACH 50

THE POSITIVE APPROACH 66

COMPARISON OF APPROACHES 82

UNIT 2. PSYCHOLOGY: INVESTIGATING BEHAVIOUR

SECTION A: CONTEMPORARY DEBATES 86

SECTION B: PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH 114

YOUR AS LEVEL 172

Glossary 176

References 185

Index 190

Image credits 198

AUTHORS: NICOLA TAYLOR AND KIRSTY WHITE

Nicola Taylor is subject leader for social science at Monmouth Comprehensive School. She hasextensive experience of teaching AS and A level psychology, and has worked as an AS and A levelpsychology examiner for many years. Nicola has particular interests in counselling and therapy, and isalso a qualified practitioner.

Kirsty White is a psychology graduate from Cardiff University and is trained to teach in bothfurther and secondary education. She works as a social science teacher at Monmouth ComprehensiveSchool, with particular responsibility for teaching psychology. She also has experience working withindividuals with mental health and personality disorders, and has a keen interest in the fields ofclinical and forensic psychology.

EDITORS: NIGEL HOLT AND ROB LEWIS

Nigel Holt works in the Department of Psychology at Aberystwyth University and Rob Lewis worksin the School of Education at Cardiff Metropolitan University. They are always happy to hear fromstudents and teachers so if you have any questions or would just like to say hello, please feel free toget in touch – their email addresses can be found on their respective institutional websites.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This is for my mum, who would have been so proud. (Nicola)

This book is dedicated to my family, Ali and Rich, who have been always been there for me. (Kirsty)

Nicola and Kirsty would also like to thank Rob for his good humoured editing and support in writing this book.They would also like to acknowledge the inspiration provided by Jonesy and Albie, particularly in the behaviouristapproach chapter. Thank you to Olivia for lending us her photography skills and putting up with our constantbook-induced stress. This book is for our students, who are an unending source of motivation and inspiration.

Nigel and Rob would like to take this opportunity to thank Nicola and Kirsty, two excellent teachersin a marvellous social science department in an exceptionally caring and dynamic school,which we have had the pleasure of visiting on several occasions.

INTRODUCTION

From 2015, AS and A level psychology in Wales will, for the first time, be different from theircounterparts in England and Northern Ireland. The WJEC has grasped the opportunity todemonstrate their individuality by developing an AS specification which is unique in approachand content, as well as being appropriately challenging for advanced level study.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Psychology is the scientific study of mindand behaviour. It is one of the most popularsubjects to study in schools, colleges anduniversities in Britain. Some people will tell youthat psychology is just ‘common sense’, andit could be argued there is an element of truthto this in some aspects of psychology. Whatreally distinguishes psychology, however, is thefoundation of research that it shares with theother sciences. We live around and observeother people every day, yet they are still hard tounderstand. Studying behaviour scientificallycan be relatively straightforward, but it canalso be a very difficult undertaking indeed. Itcan sometimes seem as though the findingsof research raise more questions than theyanswer. This is because human beings are verycomplicated and their behaviour is subject to

many influences – from the actions of tiny braincells to the impact of being amongst others in alarge crowd. It is only through scientific research,where there are carefully controlled observationsand tests, that we can determine, with any kindof confidence, why people behave the way theydo. You will notice that there is a major focuson research throughout this book, not only inthe section on research methods but in all thesections, where the material presented is largelyderived from scientific methods and the theoriesare developed from scientific evidence.

Knowledge of how psychologists gatherinformation through research is vital to yourown success at AS level, and we cannot stressenough how important it is to have a soundunderstanding of research methods. Thespecification requires that you not only developyour own psychological research skills, but alsothat you are able to apply your knowledge sothat you can evaluate the evidence on whichtheories are built. You will notice as you progressthrough the book that frequent reference ismade to the methods used by psychologistsin their research, and in order to deepen yourunderstanding we would recommend thatyou regularly refer to the section on researchmethods. In this way, your knowledge ofresearch methods will slowly grow and yourappreciation of psychology will deepen.

We hope that AS level psychology will giveyou a taste for psychology and that you willcontinue to study further at A level and beyondat undergraduate level.

Nigel and Rob

Unit 1

Psychology:Past to Present

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW

The biological approach

Evolutionary influences

Localisation of brain function

Neurotransmitters

Evolutionary influences on the formationof relationships

Drug therapy OR Psychosurgery

Classic research: Raine et al. (1997)

The psychodynamic approach

The unconscious mind

Tripartite personality

Influence of childhood experiences

The influence of childhood experiences onthe formation of relationships

Dream analysis OR Group analysispsychotherapy

Classic research: Bowlby (1944)

The behaviourist approach

Blank slate

Humans and animals learn in similar ways

Behaviour learned through conditioning

The formation of relationships betweenpets and their owners: behaviour learnedthrough conditioning

Aversion therapy OR Systematicdesensitisation

Classic research: Watson and Rayner (1920)

The cognitive approach

Internal mental processes

The computer analogy

Schemas

Internal mental processes and theformation of relationships

Cognitive-behavioural therapy ORRationalemotive behaviour therapy

Classic research: Loftus and Palmer (1974)

The positive approach

Acknowledgement of free will

Authenticity of goodness and excellence

Focus on ‘the good life’

’The good life’ and the formation ofrelationships

Mindfulness OR Quality of Life Therapy

Classic research: Myers and Diener (1995)

The BiologicalApproach

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW

The assumptions of the biologicalapproach

Evolutionary influences

Localisation of brain function

Neurotransmitters

Evaluation of the biological approach

Strengths

Weaknesses

Comparison with the four otherapproaches (see page 82)

Application: formation of relationships

How the approach can be used inONE therapy:

EITHER: Drug therapy

Evaluation:

Effectiveness

Ethical considerations

OR: Psychosurgery

Evaluation:

Effectiveness

Ethical considerations

Classic research (Raine et al., 1997)

Aim

Method and procedure

Findings

Conclusion

Evaluation

Ethical issues

Social implications

INTRODUCTION

Biology influences behaviour. We know this from the way that changes inbrain chemicals affect moods, and from how brain trauma can radically alterthe ways in which we think and act. Also, behaviour influences biology. Thiscan be seen in the stressful effects the environments we find ourselves in have on us, the waythat mood influences immune system functioning, and the effects of the recreational drugsthat we choose to take, such as tobacco and alcohol, on our psychology and physiology. Clearly,biology and behaviour are inextricably interwoven. Changes in one bring about changes in theother, and we cannot truly understand either without some understanding of both.

THE ASSUMPTIONS OF THEBIOLOGICAL APPROACH

1. Evolutionary influences

The basic premise of evolution theory is rathersimple and elegant. Animals produce manymore young than could possibly survive.Offspring are often very slightly different fromeither parent and these variations (or mutations)

sometimes enable animals to cope better withenvironmental demands and reach maturity. Theones that do reach adulthood are the strongestof their generation, and when they breed theypass on to their young the characteristics thathelped them survive. Those with traits thathelp them survive are more likely to reproducethemselves (i.e. they are selected by the processof evolution for their ‘fitness’), and so the cyclecontinues. As many generations go by, thetraits (or adaptations) that have aided survivaland reproductive fitness are passed on andbecome widespread in the population. Such aprocess involves changes to both physiologyand behaviour, so that the end result can bean animal that bears little resemblance to itsancestors in looks or behaviour. This is theprinciple of natural selection. A special kind ofnatural selection is sexual selection. This theorysays that the characteristics of an animal thatincrease mating success are more likely to resultin reproduction, passing on that characteristicto offspring, and thus also increasing theirchances of mating success. A consequence ofthis is often exaggerated characteristics whichappear, on the face of it, to disadvantage ananimal in terms of survival chances – take themale peacock’s tail for example. The moreflamboyant the display, the more likely a male isto attract a female.

The male peacock’s tail is an example of exaggeratedphysical characteristics evolving in order to increasechances of reproductive success.

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH |11

2. Localisation of brain function

This assumption of the biological approachdraws on research which has shown thatparticular areas of the brain are specialised forcertain functions or tasks. The brain has twohemispheres (or halves). Each hemisphere hasregions specialised for particular things (i.e.they have localised functions). The cortex ofeach hemisphere consists of four areas calledlobes. The large frontal lobes are involved inhigher functions e.g. thinking, speech andmotor control and coordinating informationfrom other lobes. Behind the frontal lobes sit theparietal lobes which receive and interpret sensoryinformation. Visual information is receivedand processed at the back of the brain by theoccipital lobes. Finally, at the sides of the brainare the temporal lobes which process auditoryinformation and are also important for memory.The areas of the cortex directly responsible forsensory information are called primary areas.All other cortical areas are collectively known asassociation areas. The neurons in the associationareas appear to be less specific in what they do,

are more flexible in their functions and adaptto experience, much more so than neurons inthe primary areas. This makes some sense inthat they are involved in integrating and usinginformation from the primary areas in high levelfunctions such as perception, decision makingand planning.

Language is a good example of localisationof function. In 1861, physician Paul Brocaexhibited the brain of a patient who, beforedying the year before, had lost the ability to sayanything other than ‘tan’. The brain showedclear damage to the left frontal cortex, an areanow called Broca’s area, which is important forguiding the muscles in the mouth into the rightshapes to make speech sounds. In 1874, CarlWernicke described a patient who, followingdamage to the left temporal cortex, had greatdifficulty understanding speech. This area isnow known as Wernicke’s area. Since then anumber of other locations have been discoveredin the brain that are important for language, andfor the vast number of people these are in theleft hemisphere.

Figure 1.1: The left hemisphere of the brainshowing the four lobes, the primary areas and thelanguage centres (Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas).

12| AS LEVEL WJEC PSYCHOLOGY

3. Neurotransmitters

The brain is made up of billions of cells calledneurons. These communicate with one anotherusing electrical and chemical signals. Thechemical used in this communication is calleda neurotransmitter. When a neuron receivesmessages from others neurons, it is stimulatedto pass messages on to other neurons withwhich it is associated. These messages occur atsynapses – tiny gaps between neurons used forcommunication (see Figure 1.2). A neuron sendsmolecules of neurotransmitter across the synapseto another neuron. This communication causeseither excitation or inhibition in the receivingneuron. Excitation occurs when neurotransmittermessages make it more likely that receivingneurons will themselves send the message on toother neurons. As the name suggests, inhibitionmakes passing the message on less likely tohappen. This process occurs in the brain manymillions of times every second, resulting in theregulation of thinking and behaviour.

There are many different kinds ofneurotransmitters, and research into thesesubstances has told us a great deal aboutthe origins of both normal and abnormalbehaviour. For example, reduced levels of theneurotransmitter dopamine lie behind thesymptoms of Parkinson’s disease, and increasinglevels of dopamine can help reduce these

14| AS LEVEL WJEC PSYCHOLOGY

EVOLUTIONARY INFLUENCESON THE FORMATION OFRELATIONSHIPS

Evolution theory attempts to apply theprinciples of evolution to understandinghuman behaviours, including the formationof relationships. According to this approach,both males and females are seeking to producehealthy offspring in order for their genes tosurvive into the next generation. Consequently,sexual partners will be sought who can produceand provide for healthy children, although malesand females do look for different things in theirpartners.

Females produce few eggs in comparisonto the millions of sperm produced by malesand they also invest heavily in the nine monthsof pregnancy, the childbirth, lactation andchild dependency period. Clearly, the malecontribution to the reproductive process isminor in comparison. Females are limitedin the number of children they can produceduring their reproductive years whereas malescan produce a seemingly unlimited number

of offspring throughout their lives. Thesebiological differences have led males and femalesto develop different strategies and tactics tomaximise their chances of reproductive success.

Females are programmed to mate withcarefully chosen partners with plentifulresources, whereas males are programmed tomaximise their chances of producing offspringby mating frequently and ‘sowing their seed’with as many partners as possible. Promiscuityfor males is a way of increasing their chanceof reproducing, whereas monogamy is a moreappropriate strategy for females, who may seekolder, reliable males for long-term relationshipswho can provide good resources for a potentialfamily. Males may seek younger, attractivefemales who are likely to be more fertile andproduce healthy offspring. Table 1.2 is asummary of some findings from research.

Use your knowledge of one assumptionof the biological approach to explainwhy a relationship is formed. (5 marks)

STUDY

FINDINGS

EXPLANATION

Buss(1989)

Males: valued physical attractiveness more.

Females: valued earning potential andoccupational status more.

Males: attractiveness could be an indicator offertility.

Females: earning potential indicates theability to provide for offspring.

Singh(1993)

Men prefer women with a low waist-to-hipratio, indicative of higher conception rates.

Males: prefer this body shape as it indicateshigher conception rates and more offspring.

Females: their shape is a signal to ‘fit’ males.

Montoya(2007)

Both sexes interested in body partspredictive of health (e.g. eyes, skin,complexion). Males preferred body partspredictive of fertility (e.g. hips). Femalespreferred body parts predictive of strengthand overall fitness (e.g. muscle tone).

Males: seek partners who are more likely toproduce offspring.

Females: strength indicates the ability toprotect offspring.

Table 1.2: Some findings from research into evolutionary explanations for the formation of relationships.

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH |15

THERAPY – DRUG THERAPY

The focus of drug therapy is either to increaseor decrease the effects of neurotransmitters inthe brain. Because behaviour originates withminute chemical changes in the brain, theassumption is that deliberately altering this brainchemistry with drugs should change unwantedbehaviour (drugs that have psychological effectsare known as psychoactive drugs). Many of thefirst drugs for treating psychological disorderswere discovered accidentally. For example,in the 1950s it was found that lithium saltmade animals quiet and calm. Lithium wasthen trialled as a treatment for depressionand became the main psychoactive drug fordepression until the introduction of safer andmore effective alternatives.

The beneficial impacts of drug therapyare not always due solely to the psychoactive

effects of the drug. There is a cultural belief inthe benefits of drug treatments and so thereis a great expectation of recovery. This meansthat there is a strong placebo effect with somepsychoactive drugs – patients unknowingly

DISORDER AND POSSIBLECHEMICAL CAUSE

DRUG THERAPY

EFFECT ONNEUROTRANSMITTERS

Schizophrenia: an excess ofdopamine

Conventional antipsychotics(e.g. chlorpromazine) oratypical antipsychotics (e.g.clozapine)

Antipsychotic drugs reduce theeffect of dopamine in the brain,thus reducing the symptoms ofschizophrenia.

Depression: low levels ofserotonin

Selective serotonin reuptakeinhibitors (SSRIs, e.g. Prozac)

SSRIs maintain levels of serotonin inthe synapse, thus increasing its effects.

Depression: low levels ofnoradrenaline

Tricyclic antidepressants:(TCAs) or monoamineoxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

TCAs and MAOIs both increase theamount of noradrenaline in the brain.

Anxiety (as the mainsymptom): low levels ofserotonin

Anxiolytic antidepressants:SSRIs

SSRIs used to treat depression alsowork with anxiety disorders.

Anxiety (with strong physicalsymptoms): susceptibility tothe effects of the fight-or-flight hormone adrenaline

Anxiolytics: benzodiazepines(BZs, e.g. Valium)

BZs enhance the activity of theneurotransmitter GABA which‘quietens’ the neurons in the brainby making it harder for them to bestimulated by other neurotransmitters.A person therefore feels more relaxed.

Table 1.3: Some disorders and drug therapy treatments.

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given non-active (neutral) medication showimprovements because they believe that drugtherapy will work. This undoubtedly improvesthe effectiveness of drug therapy for manyindividuals, and shows not only that the brainaffects the mind but also that the mind affectsthe brain.

Evaluation of drug therapy

Effectiveness

» Drugs are cheap, quick, easy and effective waysof managing the symptoms of psychologicaldisorders. Whilst this is their greatest strength,it is also their greatest weakness. They treatthe symptoms rather than the cause, so donot provide a ‘cure’ as such. They are aconvenient alternative to the lengthy andexpensive process of psychological therapyand this has led to their over-prescription.There is a risk of both physiological andpsychological dependency with drug therapy.There are also a great number of side effectsfrom medication, depending on the dosageand type of drug taken.

» Many psychologists argue that psychologicaltreatments are more appropriate than drugtreatments. Greist (1998) compared the

effectiveness of psychological therapy to thatof drug treatments for anxiety. Greist foundthat psychological therapy was just as effectiveas drugs and did not have the side effects andhigh relapse rates associated with drug therapy.This has led some to argue that drug therapyshould never be the sole treatment and thereshould always be an associated or alternativepsychological treatment available.

» Elkin et al. (1989) conducted a large-scalestudy comparing cognitive-behavioural therapy(CBT), interpersonal therapy, drug therapyand placebos for treating depression. Theyfound that the use of drugs generally providedquicker effects than the other therapies,especially for those with severe cases ofdepression. However, when individuals hadmild cases of depression they experiencedlittle reduction in the symptoms comparedwith those undergoing the other treatments, oreven taking the placebo.

Ethical considerations

» As with all drug treatments, psychoactivedrugs cause side effects. For example,TCAs can cause drowsiness and numerousother side effects, MAOIs can be fatal ifconsumption is mixed with certain foods, BZscan cause memory problems and conventionalantipsychotics can cause involuntarymovements of the mouth and tongue.

» Drugs are non-invasive ways of treatingdisorders: the patient does not have toundergo surgery, which could lead toirreversible changes, and can be weaned off themediation if and when medical professionalsfeel it is safe to do so. Where possible, medicalprofessionals will use drug therapies thathave less severe side effects (e.g. SSRIs are themost common drug treatment for depressionas the side effects are less serious than thoseof MAOIs) or when non-drug treatments arenot suitable (e.g. CBT; see the section on thecognitive approach).

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH |17

THERAPY – PSYCHOSURGERY

Psychosurgery is a biological approach toabnormality which sees abnormal behaviour asa symptom of an underlying physical problemoriginating in the brain. Surgically altering thephysical state of the brain therefore shouldbring about change in the unwanted abnormalbehaviour. Psychosurgery specifically aims toalleviate the symptoms of mental illnesses bydestroying areas of the brain or interrupting theflow of information between particular brainareas that may be the cause of these behaviours.

Trepanning

Evidence for the basic principle ofpsychosurgery can be seen in fossils datingback to prehistoric times. Skulls have beenfound with large holes cut into them througha process known as ‘trepanning’. This iswhere an instrument has been used to cutaway circular sections of the skull. Historianshave surmised that the purpose of this wasto cure abnormal behaviour by releasingevil spirits. It is likely that these unfortunateindividuals suffered a great deal before theydied prematurely.

Prefrontal lobotomy (leucotomy)

In the 1930s Egan Moniz developed a surgicalprocedure known as a leucotomy. This involveddrilling two holes on either side of the skull andinserting through these a tool which was rotatedto separate the frontal lobes from the rest ofthe brain. This idea came from the discoverythat when aggressive monkeys had the frontallobe area of their brain removed they becamesubdued and calm. Reports of lobotomies onschizophrenic patients claimed near miraculousoutcomes, so that previously aggressive andunpredictable individuals were now quiet anddocile. In the 1940s Walter Freeman developeda much quicker procedure called the transorbitallobotomy, which involved separating the frontallobes by inserting a large needle into the brainthrough the eye socket. This quick and easyprocedure meant that in the United Statesalone over 50,000 people received lobotomies.Lobotomies fell out of favour in the 1950s withincreasing reports of fatalities and negative sideeffects and the development of drug therapies.

Over time much more precise surgicalprocedures were developed. Stereotacticpsychosurgery, for example, involves destructionof very specific areas of the brain. Areas forsurgery are targeted by using brain scans;measurements are taken so that neurosurgeonsare able to insert probes with great precisionto particular locations in the brain. Electricalcurrents to the tip of the probe ensure that onlysmall sections of brain tissue are destroyed,with little or no damage to surrounding healthytissue. However, such surgical procedures arenow carried out only as a last resort with severecases of disorders such as depression andobsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

D’Astous et al. (2013) evaluated an operationcalled bilateral anterior capsulotomy (surgicaldamage to a part of the brain called the internalcapsules). Nineteen patients were studied upto seven years following their operations andalmost half had responded well to surgery.

18| AS LEVEL WJEC PSYCHOLOGY

Whilst there were no deaths, two patientshad permanent complications as a result ofthe brain surgery. A new surgical proceduretrialled by Jung et al. (2015) uses ultrasound todestroy the anterior internal capsules. Follow-upassessments of four patients showed gradualimprovement in symptoms. As this is a non-invasive procedure there were none of the sideeffects or complications associated with invasiveneurosurgery.

Evaluation of psychosurgery

Effectiveness

» The lobotomy eventually began to fall out offavour with those working with patients withmental disorders and illnesses. Side effectssuch as unresponsiveness, decreased attentionspan and blunted or inappropriate emotionsled to the conclusion that this treatmentproduced effects that were worse than thosecaused by the disorder in the first place.Furthermore, there was a fatality rate of up to6%, with severe side effects including brainseizures (Comer, 2006).

» Kim et al. (2002) investigated the long-termeffects of various stereotactic psychosurgeriesin patients with aggression, OCD, depressionand anxiety disorders and concluded that

they are safe and effective for some mentaldisorders and illnesses. Different scales tomeasure the severity of symptoms were usedfor each disorder. During follow-ups years afterthe surgery, all patients showed significantdecreases in their symptoms.

» Even though psychosurgery has come along way there are still risks involved inthe procedure which could reduce theeffectiveness of the treatment. In some casestreatment can impact on a person’s ability tolead a normal life as side effects can includememory loss, seizures and changes topersonality.

Ethical considerations

» Nowadays, psychosurgery is used only as alast resort when other therapies or treatmentshave been ineffective. Medical professionalsand psychologists will always seek to try lessextreme measures to help those with mentalillnesses or disorders, to minimise the risk ofharm. Drug therapy is always preferable topsychosurgery and its effects are often not assevere or long term.

» Patients who could undergo psychosurgerywould do so because they have a seriouspsychological disorder or illness. Therefore,it is questionable whether they can give fullyinformed consent. Their disorder could make