From Crisis to Recovery E-Book

• Herausgeber: Modern History Press
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2008

Seitenzahl: 244

Beschreibung

Events around the world continue to present challenges for first responders and mental health professionals. Natural and man-made disasters continue. Evidence mounts concerning potential events such as global warming and the effects this may have worldwide. Avian Flu remains a concern as do forms of biological terrorism and natural hazards such as tsunamis, floods, hurricanes and earthquakes. The 2004 tsunami in Sri Lanka and Thailand continues to have a significant impact on that area of the world. Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq continue to impact those countries, the Middle East and the United States. Preparing our communities and families not only for deployments and support of those deployed and their families, but also for the aftermath and return of our military and National Guard personnel into our communities is important for all.

What can we expect from all of these? How do communities and first responders handle these? What role does mental health play? How do first responders and mental health professionals plan together for responding to future events and learning from past ones. Using a strategic planning approach, how do we identity potential threats and identify target populations and groups? What resources are available for which identified threats? How do we do such planning, how often, and how do we exercise such plans prior to events? What can we learn from such events and how do we incorporate what we learn into future planning?

It is crucial that response, resilience, recovery and follow-up be included in our planning. Additional variables important in responding include cultural knowledge and sensitivity. We need to prepare to respond appropriately within a culture not our own, whether locally, nationally, or internationally.

November 8-10, 2007, the Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Institute held their Annual Disaster Mental Health Conference in Cheyenne, Wyoming. The theme of this conference was: From Crisis To Recovery: Resilience and Strategic Planning for the Future.
RM DMH Institute Press
"Learning from the past and planning for the future"

Leseprobe

Proceedings of the6th Rocky Mountain RegionDisaster Mental HealthConference

Edited by George W. Doherty, MS, LPC

Proceedings of the 6th Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference Copyright © 2008 Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Institute.All Rights Reserved.

Individual contributors retain copyrights to each paper contained herein and have granted reprint permission for this set of Proceedings.

For information on reprints, please contact the Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Institute (below).

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference (6th : 2007 : Cheyenne, Wyo.)

      Proceedings of the 6th Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference / edited by George W. Doherty.

p.; cm.

  Includes bibliographical references and index.

  ISBN-13: 978-1-932690-56-9 (alk. paper)

  ISBN-10: 1-932690-56-5 (alk. paper)

  1. Disasters–Psychological aspects–Congresses. 2. Psychiatric emergencies–Congresses. 3. Crisis intervention (Mental health services)–Congresses. I. Doherty, George W. (George William) II. Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Institute. III. Title.

  [DNLM: 1. Stress Disorders, Traumatic–therapy–Congresses. 2. Crisis Intervention–Congresses. 3. Cultural Diversity–Congresses. 4. Disaster Planning–Congresses. 5. Emergency Services, Psychiatric–Congresses. 6. Veterans–psychology–Congresses. WM 172 R684pa 2007]

  RC451.4.D57R63 2007

  362.2'2–dc22

                                                   2008006845

ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION DISASTER MENTAL HEALTH INSTITUTEPO BOX 786LARAMIE, WY 82073-0786

http://www.rmrinstitute.org/rocky.html

email: [email protected]

Phone: [phone]

The Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Institute is a 501(c)3 Non-profit Organization.

Rocky Mountain DMH Institute Press is an Imprint of:

Loving Healing Press              http://www.LovingHealing.com

5145 Pontiac Trail                   [email protected]

Ann Arbor, MI 48105                Fax [phone]

USA

Table of Contents

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Institute

Chapter 1 – Traumatic Stress in the Workplace

Police Suicides: The Unidentified Assailant by Rod Warne

Behavioral Health in Emergency Preparedness – Making Workforce Protection a Priority by P.J. Havice-Cover, MA, LPC, CACIII

Chapter 2 – Planning Disaster Response

From Crisis to Recovery: Resilience, Response and Planning by George W. Doherty

Choosing Your Own Adventure: Strategic Planning In Disaster Sherry Jones, RN, EMTP

Developing a Statewide Disaster Behavioral Health Plan by Diane F. Fojt, MSc., REMT-P., CFT and Janet Wagner, CMA

Chapter 3 – Ethics

Ethical Decision-making in the Provision of Disaster Mental Health Services by Thom Curtis, Ph.D.

Chapter 4 – Cultural Issues and Trauma Recovery

The Importance of Touch and Non-Verbal Communication in the Recovery Process: An Intercultural Prospective by Patricia Justice, M.A., BACP

Chapter 5 – Special Populations and Trauma Response

Flyboy's Daughter by Jamie Egolf, MSW, LCSW

The Forgotten Trauma Victims: America's Elderly by John G. Jones, Ph.D. ABPP ART-BC

Tourists, Terrorism, and Disaster by Thom Curtis

Chapter 6 – Demobilization Support

Reunion and Re-integration with the Family after deployment by Debbie Russell and Daniella Hamilton

Chapter 7 – Summary of Additional Presentations

The Owners Manual for Professionals in High Stress Occupations by Rhiannon Brwynn Thomas, PhD, BCETS, BCEIT

Introduction to the Incident Command System by David King

Index

Foreword

The 2007 Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference was held November 8-11 at the Historic Plains Hotel in Cheyenne, Wyoming. Delegates were treated to the experience of staying at a historical landmark. The Plains opened in 1911 and, in 2002, was rededicated after nearly $2 million in renovations. It is located in downtown Cheyenne across the street from the Union Pacific Depot and Museum (pictured on front cover), a National Historic Landmark. The accommodations enjoyed by delegates were those enjoyed over the years by celebrities and dignitaries including President Harry S. Truman, Presidential candidates Tom Dewey, Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan and Ted Kennedy. Movie stars such as Carroll Baker, Karl Malden, Pat Wayne, Gilbert Roland, Sal Mineo, Ricardo Montalban, Jimmy Stewart, Barbara Eden, and Debbie Reynolds have all stayed at the Plains. Over the years, these same accommodations have also been enjoyed by cattle barons, oil tycoons and travelers on their way to Yellowstone and the Grand Tetons.

The Thursday evening reception with wine and cheese was sponsored by a western art gallery next to the hotel. Delegates enjoyed each others company while viewing many great examples of Wyoming western art. They enjoyed networking and fun at the Conference Dinner on Friday where entertainment included Rattlesnake Jake with his western songs, conversation, cowboy poetry and stories about western characters.

While delegates were able to explore our western heritage and the hospitality of Cheyenne and the Plains Hotel, all was not play. An impressive array of presenters over the three days provided much food for thought on various areas of disaster mental health. In addition to delegates from communities and agencies in Wyoming, delegates attended from Oregon, Florida, Texas, Washington DC, Colorado, England, Hawaii, Nevada, and Utah. Those who attended were treated to updates in critical incident stress management (CISM) as practiced in various settings, program descriptions and information on disasters, families of deployed military, and other related topics. Two of the workshops provided information on Incident Command (IC) and the National Incident Management System (NIMS).

The current volume documents the contents of this timely and important conference. Presenters have placed their presentations into articles that are included here in order for others to be able to update their knowledge and information about these topics. The theme of this conference was “FROM CRISIS TO RECOVERY: Resilience and Strategic Planning For the Future”. Again this year each day concluded with a number of roundtable discussions addressing related issues and topics.

Hopefully, this volume will allow further dissemination of these presentations to others in the first responder and disaster mental health communities and provide a useful addition to these very important and critical fields.

The mission of the Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Institute is to promote the development and application of practice, research and training in disaster mental health, critical incident stress management, traumatology, and other emergency response interventions and to promote community awareness, resilience and recovery. This includes hazards vulnerability, mitigation research, strategic planning, and training for first responders, behavioral health professionals, chaplains and related personnel in all settings. The Institute's motto is: “Learning from the past and planning for the future.”

The conference had two major goals: (1) to learn from research, field experiences and networking; and (2) to provide a safe, fun, relaxing time to enjoy away from regular responder activities.

This volume is dedicated to all of our first responders without whom our communities would be less resilient following disasters and other critical incidents. It is also dedicated to our military and National Guard responders and the families who are there to support them during their deployments.

George W. Doherty, PresidentRocky Mountain RegionDisaster Mental Health Institute

Acknowledgements

Preparing for, organizing, carrying out, presenting and administering a conference entails the work and cooperation of a number of dedicated people. Many go unnamed, but are vital to our success. All are important. We would like to extend thanks to the Cheyenne Tourism Board for providing maps, information brochures about Cheyenne and surrounding areas in packets for our visiting delegates. They were much appreciated. The management (Debbie Disney and Connie Lester) and staff of the Plains Hotel were superb. They provided a very professional and a warm welcoming environment for all of our delegates. Equipment, setups, meals and breaks were very much above average and contributed greatly to the success of the conference. The western art gallery next to the Plains sponsored and hosted our Thursday reception and provided a great opportunity for our delegates to view some great western and Wyoming art. This was appreciated and commented positively on by our delegates. The entertainment provided through the hotel at our conference dinner was a lot of fun. Rattlesnake Jake was a perfect diversion for our delegates.

The exhibitors at the conference provided delegates with the chance to interact with and learn more about our Veterans programs, the National Guard Family Services (Debbie Russell and Danielle Hamilton), the Wyoming Department of Health Pandemic Flu information programs (Katie Bryan), and SAMHSA provided two representatives (Aurora Gesni and Anne Petraeus) who were available to discuss their disaster mental health resources. Merit Thomas and others associated with the Wyoming State Department of Health Hospital Preparedness Program provided support in many ways by helping make the conference known to those around the state and publicizing it through their networks. We would also like to thank them for their support of many of our trainings and workshops on CISM and related areas around the state during the past year. Thanks are also extended to the members of the Institute Board of Directors for their work in supporting the conference and to the WYO CISM Net Coordinators and Team members around the state for their ongoing responses during the past year, their attendance and their support of the mission of the Institute. Finally, a big thank-you to each one of our delegates from many states and two countries and to our presenters. Without the presenters, the conference would have been difficult to accomplish. Their willingness to present AND to compile their presentations into the articles in this volume to share with others has made it a success. Their contribution and hard work to accomplish this has been superb. Thank-you again to all involved.

Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Institute Board of Directors (2007 – 2008)

George W. DohertyInstitute PresidentLaramie, WYDavid SmithBoard ChairLaramie, WYBob RudicharBoard MemberGillette, WYThomas Mitchell, LPCBoard MemberTorrington, WYDavid KingBoard MemberGillette, WYSgt Randy HansonBoard MemberRock Springs, WYStewart AndersonBoard MemberCasper, WYTheresa SimpsonBoard MemberCasper, WYDaniel R. Bogart, LPCBoard MemberEvanston, WY

Police Suicides: The Unidentified Assailant

Rod Warne

Abstract

     The subject of police officers taking their own lives has been largely ignored in law enforcement agencies, yet statistics show more police officers lose their lives by their own hand than by others. Why? This Capstone Paper will explore the police culture and issues arising from the very nature that makes police officers good at what they do. It will also show how that very instinct can get in the way of officers receiving badly needed help in their personal and professional lives. This paper will also point out warning signs and suggestions to educate officers and supervisors in order to recognize and assist officers needing help before stress related disorders get to a crucial, dangerous level.

Police Suicides: A Growing Threat

Hypothesis

Police officers are trained to face many threats as they work to enforce laws and protect the public from the criminal element. If officers considered they were facing a new threat, one that was found to kill twice as many police officers as previous years, then law enforcement administrators would likely move quickly to educate and train their officers in how to protect them from this threat.

Context of the Problem

Modern day law enforcement agencies train their police officers to face many dangers within their jurisdictions. Training emphasis is given to dangers which experience and statistics show may be the greatest threats to the officers. State criminal justice agencies, as well as the federal Department of Justice, collect statistical data on how officers are injured and killed annually. This information is then disseminated for use in training and preparing officers for the dangers they will face. It also can bring awareness to the problems faced which can then lessen, or even eliminate the dangers altogether. Generally, the training focuses on issues that involve physical officer safety. Siegel and Senna (2005) report that an average officer receives “more than 600 hours of pre-service training” (p.199) and of this 600 hours, 400 hours are in the classroom. The rest of the hours are in the field. They also reported that “in larger cities officers may receive over 1,000 hours of pre-service training covering a variety of topics such as law and civil rights, firearms handling, emergency medical care, and restraint techniques (p.199).” Some agencies have also recognized stress as an ill effect of the job; they have since begun to include training to combat stress by educating their officers on how to cope with its effects. “Many departments include stress management as part of an overall wellness program, also designed to promote physical and mental health, fitness, and good nutrition” (p.224).

Although these departments are on the right track some studies are showing that approximately 300 police officers a year die by their own hands. This number is twice as many that die in the line of duty. If 300 police officers in one year were killed by a single assailant or group representing one method, then suffice to say police administrators would become alarmed and devote money, manpower, and every resource at their disposal to combat it. Police administrators do not appear to be interested in studying the issue and devoting resources within their own agencies to address the problem of officers taking their own lives. The reasons may be due to inconsistencies in some statistical data. There also may be misperceptions by police administrators that the officers who died by their own hands did so purely because of reasons such as marital problems that had nothing to do with police work. Recognition can be an issue as “It may be that the volume at any one department is so small, a member of the leadership simply doesn't recognize the suicide is symptomatic of some larger problem.” (R. Miller, personal communication, February 10, 2007).

Purpose of the Study

This capstone project will look at issues surrounding police suicides such as statistics, causes, recognition, and prevention. Additionally, and perhaps more importantly, the study will look at ways departments can be proactive in giving officers a trusted safety net where they can confidentially discuss issues they are facing. This can better assist the officers so that detrimental effects from many different problems do not overwhelm them, thus isolating the officers from their department and families. This study will also look at the police culture and show how this culture, as well as the perceptions of police officers, can add to stress already faced by police officers. As this stress builds up inside the officers, they are at risk of taking this stress home to their families causing alienation and other family problems that eventually may lead to divorce, substance abuse, depression, and even suicide.

Expectations

It is expected that law enforcement agency administrators do want the best for their officers and would want to use their resources to provide the best training for their officers by aiding them to more efficiently perform their duties in serving and protecting the citizens of their jurisdictions.

Significance of the Study

Statistical findings show that law enforcement officers are at twice the risk of killing themselves than at being killed in the line of duty. Suicidal deaths appear to be largely ignored by departmental agencies because administrators believe the deaths are related to personal issues that have nothing to do with the officers’ jobs. There may be a correlation in these officers’ lives related to law enforcement stressors as well as the police culture in which an officer works in everyday. “Police officers develop a closed society, an insular “cop culture,” centering on what many refer to as “The Job”” (Miller, 2006, n.p.). A perceived perfectionism of police officers by the public and departments, as well as trust issues also appears to be a factor in the police culture. This can hinder officers who may want to reach out for help in a safe environment out of fear they will look weak in front of other officers. Officers may also fear they will be removed from duty because of a psychological issue. Paul Gilbreath, a pastor of Crossroads Baptist Church in Lancaster, TX and area commander of the Dallas, TX region of Homeland Security was quoted about police officers not releasing things they see while on duty. He said:

     When the weapon is secured and the badge and uniform are hanging in the closet; when you're second-guessing the decisions you made during your shift and you can't get that picture of that small child out of your mind; when you keep hearing over and over the echo of the radio traffic from the officer calling for back up ‘now’ and you know you can't get there quickly enough —when all these things build up in your mind, how do you release it? (Gilbreath, 2006, n.p.)

Law enforcement administrators should want their officers to return home safely to their families and be happy, productive, and professional peace officers. In doing so law enforcement agency administrators, mid-level managers, and first-line supervisors must also recognize that officers who do not handle the stressors of law enforcement and begin alienating themselves from other departmental members, as well as their own families, are at risk for destructive behavior. In leading a modern law enforcement agency, administrators, mid level managers, and first line supervisors must be able to recognize officers at risk and then take the necessary steps to provide a safe and confidential assistance program for the at risk officer(s), even if it means a mandatory referral to a mental health professional.

Therefore, the significance of this study is to show the issue of police suicides as a threat needing addressed by all law enforcement agencies. It will also show there may be a link between the stressors of the job and personal issues within a culture that is not perceived by officers to be supportive enough to address problems stemming from the job and ultimately carried home. Finally, the significance of this study will show there are ways for departments to recognize behavior issues that may show an officer is at risk and safe avenues for the officer to go to without risk of losing their identity. This, in turn, will assist the department by providing a safety net to their officers and the officers’ families.

Background of the Study

Law enforcement agency administrators must ensure their officers are safe from the most inherent dangers they face on the streets within their jurisdiction. Training has increased since the 1930s after the Wickersham Commission surveyed 383 cities in 1931. In that survey they found only 20 percent of the cities provided police academy training. Since that time all states have created minimum training standards for certification of peace officers (Swanson, Territo, & Taylor, 2005, p. 374). When considering stress management, most departments seem to lack follow up to the training. Although there appears to be some coverage of this topic, many departments may not ensure their officers do not feel apprehensive about seeking assistance. This would mean changing their own police culture, as well as policies and procedures, so that officers will not feel intimidated to be able to confidentially reach out for help. Swanson, Territo, and Taylor (2005) wrote that:

     Stress has many ramifications and can produce many varied psychophysiological disturbances that, if sufficiently intense and chronic, can lead to demonstrable organic diseases of varying severity. It may also lead to physiological disorders and emotional instability, which can manifest themselves in alcoholism, a broken marriage, and, in the extreme, suicide (p. 441).

They also went on to report that:

     “…law enforcement stressors can be grouped into four broad categories: (1) organizational practices and characteristics, (2) criminal justice system practices and characteristics, (3) public practices and characteristics, and (4) police work itself (pp. 441-442).”

Functioning police officers with unreported or untreated chronic stress issues have a greater potential for making mistakes and not being alert on the job because of a lack of focus. Consequently, these officers are at higher risk for on the job injuries, sloppy appearance and performance, and the officer may seem preoccupied with other things and begin taking shortcuts with safety. Greene (as cited in Hackett & Violanti, 2003, p. 77) also reports these officers may also have more citizens’ complaints. These issues, especially taking shortcuts for safety and being preoccupied, may relate to the officer being perceived as a potential victim by a criminal wishing to avoid arrest or merely wishing to hurt the officer. Therefore, it is in the best interests of the department to ensure their officers mental health is functioning well.

Definition of Terms

For the purpose of this study the following terms are defined for those readers who may not be familiar with their meaning:

Chronic Stress: Long term effects of stress.

Job Stress: “The condition in which some factor or combination of factors at work intersects with the worker to disrupt his or her physiological and psychological equilibrium (Reese, 1988, n.p.).”

Police Culture: Closed society made up entirely of police officers who generally socialize only within this circle and therefore perceptions are based upon what they witness.

Street: The jurisdiction in which a police officer is employed to protect and serve.

Vicarious Victimization: Police officer's perceptions based on what they witness everyday in their jobs (Reese, 1988, n.p.).

Research Methodology

In order to provide a comprehensive view of the problem, the author gleaned information from a variety of sources such as scholarly articles, internet web sites aimed at educating others on police suicides, to books printed on subjects relating to stress, police suicides, and experiences of working with and living with police officers to general opinions.

Limitations

Because there is limited information on police suicides the author was unable to conclusively find accurate data on exact statistics. Most states, including the Center for Disease Control (CDC), do not keep statistical data about police suicides. There is also believed to be an error of at least 30%, over a 40 year period of time, in misclassifying the suicides of some police officers because of what is believed to be an effort to protect the officer's family, department, and the officer's death itself. Additionally, one study in Chicago estimated that “67% of police suicides in that city had been misclassified as accidental or natural deaths (Swanson, Territo, & Taylor, 2005, p. 455).” Lastly, it is the police culture itself that appears to shield this subject because to discuss it may also reveal weaknesses within the police culture and departments across the country. Law enforcement administrators appear to be reluctant to discuss or even admit this is a problem within their cities or states.

Literature Review and Discussion

In the spring of 1988, Dr. James T. Reese and James Horn, both special agents with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, addressed their class of Stress Management in Law Enforcement (S.M.I.L.E.) by rhetorically asking how does a trained police officer work the streets of our jurisdictions and, exposed to the grisly scenes and problems law enforcement officers face, go home and be warm and fuzzy? This started the author's interest in stress management and subsequently police suicides. The subject of police suicides kept coming up in classes the author attended and finally the subject hit home when former Natrona County, Wyoming Sheriff Ron Ketcham called the current Natrona County Sheriff and told the latter where his remains could be found. Sheriff Ketcham then did something the author would've never thought possible; he committed suicide in a rural setting on the back side of Casper Mountain, south of Casper, Wyoming.

Dr. Reese and Mr. Horn piqued several of the students’ interest of stress management. It also seemed the country was beginning to address the ill effects of stress that law enforcement officers had been facing unsuccessfully for years. As the author grew up as a child of a Wyoming Highway Patrolman, he had even been exposed to a previous suicide that came to mind. A former officer of the Powell, Wyoming Police Department called his estranged wife and told her she was going to get a bang out of something. He then pulled the trigger of a firearm and ended his life. As a young child it seemed strange because this officer was a popular officer and was very friendly, not appearing to have any problems in the world, at least to a child. Yet what was so terrible that a law enforcement officer would do the very thing he/she sometimes witnessed while responding to calls as a police officer?

The literature reviewed revealed information that officers really are vicarious victims because of what they are witnessing (Reese, 1988, n.p.). Statistics from the Central Florida Police Stress Unit, a nonprofit organization associated with the Criminal Justice Office of Catholic Charities of Central Florida, indicate that:

The abuse of alcohol and prescription drugs among law enforcement officers is almost 4 times the national average.Domestic violence among law enforcement officers and their spouses continues to rise.The divorce rate among law enforcement officers is as high as 75% on first marriages and even higher on second marriages.Excessive force complaints against officers have increased over the past five years.Agencies and departments across the nation report corruption and unethical behavior among law enforcement officers.The average law enforcement officer, if he or she makes it to retirement, lives about five years if they don't have an action plan.Increased use of sick leave, decreased job performance and an increased turnover rate has been reported by many agencies.Health problems rank very high among law enforcement officers due to the risk of the job, shift-work, eating habits, relationships, and their lifestyle…ie: post traumatic stress syndrome, high blood pressure, heart attacks, hypertension, back and hip problems, liver and stomach disorders, and cancer.Every 56 hours, somewhere in America, a law enforcement officer is killed in the line of duty.Every 22 hours somewhere in America, a law enforcement officer commits suicide (n.d., n.p.).

The police culture also becomes intertwined with a police officer's perception, stress issues, and personal relationships. Officers quickly adapt to the excitement of police calls and the dangers associated with these calls. They also may become psychologically depressed in calm or normal periods; while at home they may feel uneasiness and not be comfortable being a spouse or parent. They may even have difficulty in separating police work from their personal life and as Violanti quotes Gilmartin as saying the officers’ “treat their family like suspects [they deal with] on the streets (Hackett & Violanti, 2003, p.67).” The very nature of issues that make these officers successful at what they do on the street now hinders their personal relationships. Family members may notice changes, especially when relationship issues become more and more prevalent. As a result, officers may feel the only people who understand their plight are other police officers. This can lead to police officers spending less time with their families and more time with the officers from their department.

Officers are expected to be unemotional and respond to grisly crime scenes, family violence, and crimes in progress yet be unaffected. In order to accomplish this they separate themselves from these scenes and look at them as merely part of the job. This is what Violanti calls “depersonalization (Hackett & Violanti, 2003, p. 70)” so they are not affected by what they see. This depersonalization also extends to their off duty lives as they portray the image of a police officer 24 hours a day, seven days a week. As such, officers find it hard to interchange these roles and if unchecked, the family can take a more insignificant role with the officer and the police culture prevails. The police family also suffers from the effects of the profession in that the officer must work rotating shifts, weekends, holidays, and even long hours. The officer may even be called in on days off to work and the family may feel frustrated because it appears their loved one loves the job more than them. In some cases this may even be true!

As the officer becomes more experienced they sometimes can't get enough of the job and therefore volunteer to work extra to get more experience and earn extra dollars for the family. The officer may feel he or she is doing their part by providing more money for the family, yet the family may feel they would rather have the officer home spending precious time with them. Pay issues also add to the frustrations especially if the officer left a better paying job to become a police officer. The family may convince the officer to quit and return to the old better paying job but the officer will likely never get over the feeling of leaving the best job he or she believed they ever had. Frustrations can then build up in the former officers’ minds because they do not want to be at their current job and this can lead to marital issues as well. Eventually, the former officer may quit the better paying job and return to being a police officer. Resentment can build in the spouse's mind and if not effectively released, it will resurface later on in the marriage. Bonafacio (as cited in Hackett & Violanti, 2003, p.71) reported that data from New York City indicated steps to address relationship issues involving police officers, through department assistance, were generally aimed at educating the spouses of what to expect as the officer changes.