Organizational Behavior Management - An introduction (OBM) E-Book

Joost Kerkhofs

• Herausgeber: Van Haren Publishing
• Kategorie: Bildung
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Seitenzahl: 401

Beschreibung

This book is about achieving behavioral change in organizations. It provides a specific, practically applicable answer to the ‘how’ question of behavioral change, based on scientifically validated principles. This distinguishes this book from many other management books.

Organizational Behavior Management, or OBM for short, is the field that deals with behavioral change in organizations. Some prefer to speak of ‘targeted behavioral influence’.
OBM is not about changing people, nor is it about manipulating people. It is about changing the environment in which people behave. The goal is to create working conditions that inspire and motivate people to deliver peak performance. Leaders play an important facilitating role in creating and maintaining such working conditions. Applying OBM principles properly makes people happy to perform well every day. That's fun for everyone; it creates an absolute ‘win-win situation’.

People exhibit, or display observable behavior all day long. Sometimes people emit outright unwanted behavior. Others just don't do what we agreed upon, or don’t do what they learned in training. Many organizations suffer from clumsy, unwanted, or even dysfunctional behavior in the workplace. For example in the form of ‘pocket veto’ and ‘saying yes, meaning no’, victim behavior, avoidance behavior or escape behavior.
Analyzing observable behavior, for example, answers the following questions:
• "Why are we now specifically emitting this behavior and not other behavior?"
• "How do you get people to want to behave differently?"

This book gives answers to these questions and provides executives and other influencers with a solid and evidence-based approach for dealing with behavioral, performance and motivational issues.

Leseprobe

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT - AN INTRODUCTION

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Colophon

Title:

Organizational Behavior Management - An introduction

Authors:

Robert den Broeder, Joost Kerkhofs

Publisher:

Van Haren Publishing, ’s-Hertogenbosch-NL, www.vanharen.net

Translator:

Robert den Broeder (translation from original text in Dutch)

Text editor:

Steve Newton (Galatea)

ISBN Hard copy:

978 94 018 0707 4

ISBN eBook (pdf):

978 94 018 0708 1

ISBN ePUB:

978 94 018 0709 8

Editions:

Dutch edition: First edition, first impression, May 2020

English translation:

First edition, first impression, November 2020

Layout and design:

Coco Bookmedia, Amersfoort-NL

Copyright:

© Van Haren Publishing, 2020

For further information on Van Haren Publishing, e-mail to: [email protected].

Nothing from this publication may be reproduced, recorded in an automated database or published on or via any medium, either electronically, mechanically, through photocopying or any other method, without prior written permission from the publisher.

This publication was produced with the utmost care and attention. Nevertheless, the text may contain errors. The publisher and the authors are not liable for any errors and/or inaccuracies in this text.

Preface

I am pleased to have this book by Robert and Joost in front of me. It shows exactly how you can achieve behavioral change in organizations. After the main theoretical concepts, the steps of behavioral change follow.

OBM is a profession. An applied science. This requires an investment in time to master it. The social sciences are struggling. The natural sciences are doing well. Think of the IT revolution that has been brought about by inventions in electronics. We have also become dependent on science and technology.

This book introduces you to the applied science of behavior, which is a breakthrough for management and organizations. Sooner or later consultancy companies will also embrace OBM simply because it is the best working approach to achieve behavioral change. Clients are fed up with abstract and conceptual theories. They want to see results and OBM ensures and realizes measurable results.

I was lucky enough to bump into Joost while finishing my thesis on Organizational Behavior Management. We established the OBM expertise center ADRIBA at the VU University in Amsterdam and trained hundreds of OBM practitioners there. That put OBM on the map here in the Netherlands.

OBM Dynamics, Robert and Joost’s company in the Netherlands, is a spin-off of years of sparring and collecting cases, with which OBM is also expanding internationally. Of course, we are indebted to our common teachers, the Americans Aubrey Daniels and B.F. Skinner. However, truly commercially marketing internationally is something the Dutch have been adept at for centuries.

Joost took Robert to an OBM introduction session once, after which Robert became addicted to OBM. There are worse addictions to have. Due to this positive addiction he has already done a lot of good work.

For example, Robert and I have been teaching the OBM Summer School at the VU University in Amsterdam for years, training dozens of international students and practitioners in the secrets of behavioral change.

Robert also developed and delivers the OBM Foundation training throughout the Netherlands. He discusses the most important OBM concepts, which the participants not only apply in their work on a daily basis, but also in their home life. For example, we have seen many examples come up about raising children, where OBM offered a solution. Such as putting small children to bed on time, or getting them to tidy up their rooms.

We have seen a specific reduction in measurable lead times in organizations, increased productivity and increased safety, for example by having employees wear safety gear more often and having unsafe situations reported.

The beauty of the principles of behavior change is that they apply anywhere, anytime. They have been tested during thousands of laboratory and field experiments. Just as a pen is unlikely to fly to the ceiling when we release it, it is also unlikely that people will perform less if they are rewarded with attention for improved performance.

Nevertheless, we welcome new insights and deviations from the current theory with open arms. Deviations teach us about a poor application of the theory, or inform us about gaps in the theory.

You will have fun and success in applying OBM in both your work and personal situations. Specifically because the principles of behavior analysis dictate that rewards and compliments are way more effective than punishment and criticism in both improving relationships and in increasing the joint results. This makes OBM not only the best, but also the most enjoyable management method.

Dr. Marius M. RietdijkScientific Director ADRIBA

Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam

Acknowledgements

We want to thank everyone who has contributed to this publication. Special thanks go to: Paul Wilkinson (Business Development Director at GamingWorks BV)

Mark Smalley (IT Management Consultant at Smalley.IT)

Elka Schrijver (Leadership Coach, Facilitator at Lead The Pack Consulting)

Niels Loader (Partner & Principal Consultant at Quint, Author of The Lean IT Expert),

Lex Tabak (OBM trainer and examiner at ADRIBA - VU University of Amsterdam),

Steve Newton ( Galatea).

The authors

Contents

1 Introduction

1.1 The role of working conditions in performance issues

1.2 Organizations are constantly changing, and with varying degrees of success

1.2.1 Realizing behavioral change is the key to success

1.2.2 Specifying behavior is difficult

1.3 Structure of this book

1.4 How this book came about

2 Organizational Behavior Management (OBM)

2.1 OBM and behaviorism

2.2 Building blocks within OBM

2.3 Performance in context

2.4 Functions of behavior

2.5 ABC model and the OBM protocol

3 Performance: result and behavior in a context

3.1 Result

3.2 Pitfalls to avoid when specifying results

4 Behavior

4.1 Behavior defined

4.2 Behavior, an overview

4.2.1 Respondent behavior, the reflex

4.2.2 Operant behavior

4.2.3 Respondent behavior, the unconditioned reflex

4.2.4 Respondent behavior, the conditioned reflex

4.2.5 The role of classical conditioning in business

4.2.6 Operant behavior

4.2.7 Response and behavioral chain

4.2.8 Verbal behavior

4.2.9 Verbal operants

4.2.10 Internal verbal behavior

5 Additional concepts and approaches related to behavior

5.1 Cognitive dissonance

5.2 Conscious behavior versus unconscious behavior

5.2.1 Unconscious behavior

5.2.2 The role of positive consequences: reinforcement and reward

5.2.3 Unwanted behavior is usually consciously emitted

5.3 Constructs, mindset and intrinsic motivation

5.3.1 Constructs

5.3.2 Mindset

5.3.3 Intrinsic motivation

5.4 Visible and invisible organization

5.4.1 It is always about behavioral change

6 The four functions of behavior

6.1 A closer look at the four functions of behavior

6.1.1 Internal, biological, neurological (‘sensory stimulation’)

6.1.2 Escape and avoidance

6.1.3 Attention

6.1.4 (Access to) Tangible items (‘tangibles’), preferred items and activities

7 The ABC model of operant conditioning

7.1 Antecedents

7.1.1 Antecedent defined

7.2 Antecedents in the working environment

7.2.1 Effective antecedents

7.2.2 Rule-governed behavior

7.3 Consequences

7.3.1 Consequence defined

7.3.2 Consequences lead to emotions and feelings

7.3.3 Deprivation and satiation

7.3.4 The role of deprivation in applying consequences

7.3.5 The role of satiation in applying consequences

7.3.6 Reinforcer

7.3.7 Reward versus reinforcer

7.3.8 Positive reinforcement, R+

7.3.9 Dopamine

7.3.10 Negative reinforcement, R-

7.3.11 Negative reinforcement in practice

7.3.12 The J-curve

7.3.13 Punishment, P+

7.3.14 It is hard to punish properly and effectively!

7.3.15 Punishment in the working environment

7.3.16 Effects of applying punishment

7.3.17 Unintentional punishment

7.3.18 NIMJoD behavior

7.3.19 Automatic recovery

7.3.20 Penalty, P-

7.3.21 No longer reinforcing conditioned behavior leads to extinction

7.3.22 Resurgence, spontaneous recovery

8 Three pitfalls for leaders during behavioral interventions

9 The parakeet exercise: how do we create passionate employees?

10 The OBM protocol, an overview

10.1 Step 0: Context, business case and management summary

10.1.1 Case study: IT Service Desk of a health insurer

10.2 Step 1: Specifying the performance

10.2.1 Start with the result

10.2.2 Identify the behaviors that produce the desired result(s)

10.2.3 Avoid the ‘Activity Trap’

10.2.4 Common mistakes in specifying behavior

10.2.5 Operationalizing behavior, some examples

10.2.6 Specify a performance ‘MACRO’

10.3 Step 2: Measuring performance

10.3.1 Why do we measure performance?

10.3.2 Resistance to measurement

10.3.3 Create an environment in which people don’t mind being measured

10.3.4 Measuring results

10.3.5 Measure behavior

10.3.6 KPIs: Key Performance Indicators

10.3.7 KPIs and behavior

10.3.8 Tips for good performance indicators

10.3.9 ‘Flip the KPI!’

10.4 Step 3: Analysis of the measured performance level using the ABC model

10.4.1 The ABC model as an analysis tool: the ABC analysis

10.4.2 Step 1 – state the behavior or performance of interest

10.4.3 Step 2 – list all relevant antecedents

10.4.4 Step 3 – list all relevant consequences

10.4.5 Consequence analysis

10.4.6 Consequence analysis, some practical tips

10.4.7 Analyzing change using the ABC analysis tool

10.4.8 The ‘can’t do - won’t do’ analysis

10.4.9 Back to the case study: ABC analysis and consequence analysis

10.5 Step 4: Performance feedback

10.5.1 Feedback and feed-forward versus performance feedback

10.5.2 Performance feedback: feedback on results and behavior

10.5.3 Back to the case study: performance feedback

10.5.4 Pinpointing the desired performance, starting with the desired result

10.5.5 Graph the results of the baseline measurement

10.5.6 Sandwich feedback

10.5.7 Undesirable effects of feedback according to the Sandwich method

10.5.8 Example of Sandwich feedback: how not to do it

10.5.9 Some tips for effectively delivering criticism

10.6 Step 5: Setting subgoals

10.6.1 The function of subgoals: R+, R+, R+ and R+

10.6.2 Good subgoals are set together with the performers

10.6.3 Shaping performance

10.6.4 Back to the case study: setting subgoals

10.7 Step 6: Positive reinforcement

10.7.1 How does something become a reinforcer?

10.7.2 Primary and secondary reinforcers

10.7.3 Satiation with primary and secondary reinforcers

10.7.4 The ‘Caveman test’

10.7.5 Additional classifications of secondary reinforcers

10.7.6 Finding and selecting reinforcers

10.7.7 The Premack principle

10.7.8 Schedules of reinforcement

10.7.9 Learning new behavior

10.7.10 Maintaining learned behavior

10.7.11 Intermittent schedules of reinforcement, a closer look

10.7.12 Back to the case study: reward and reward schedules

10.8 Dealing with unwanted behavior

10.8.1 Just punishment, often not the best option

10.8.2 Applying extinction

10.8.3 Correcting: the combination of P+ or P- and R+

10.8.4 DRA - Differential Reinforcement of Alternative behavior

10.9 Step 7: Evaluate, conclude and adjust

10.9.1 Evaluate

10.9.2 Conclude and adjust

10.9.3 Back to the case study: evaluate, conclude and adjust

11 Closing remarks

Appendix 1 - Topics overview online learning environment ‘Knowingo’

Appendix 2 - Case study – Safety in an industrial environment

Appendix 3 - The non-behavior checklist

Appendix 4 - About the authors

Appendix 5 - The OBM Foundation training

Literature

1 Introduction

This book is about achieving behavioral change in organizations. We jokingly call this ‘the best kept management secret’. This book provides a specific, practically applicable answer to the ‘how’ question of behavioral change, based on scientifically validated principles. This distinguishes this book from many other management books.

Organizational Behavior Management, or OBM for short, is the field that deals with behavioral change in organizations. Some prefer to speak of ‘targeted behavioral influence’.

OBM is not about changing people, nor is it about manipulating people. It is about changing the environment in which people behave. The goal is to create working conditions that inspire and motivate people to deliver peak performance. Leaders play an important facilitating role in creating and maintaining such working conditions. Paul Gavoni1 refers to behavioral science as: “the science of helping others”. Applying OBM principles properly makes people happy to perform well every day. That’s fun for everyone; it creates an absolute ‘win-win situation’.

Observable behavior is said to be ‘ emitted’

People exhibit, or display observable behavior all day long. Observable behavior is said to be ‘emitted’. We intentionally use the word ‘emit’ in this book, simply because it is the correct term, and the term can be used in combination with both verbal and non-verbal observable behavior.

Sometimes people emit outright unwanted behavior. Others just don’t do what we agreed upon, or don’t do what they learned in training. Many organizations suffer from clumsy, unwanted, or even dysfunctional behavior in the workplace. For example in the form of ‘pocket veto2’ and ‘saying yes, meaning no’, victim behavior, avoidance behavior or escape behavior.

At management levels, we see, for example, ‘garbage-can decision-making3’ and spreadsheet management with a strong focus on meeting the targets. Not infrequently, this is combined with an extremely directive management style. The sad thing is that such a way of managing in the workplace leads to rapidly decreasing motivation, increased stress, all kinds of deprivation, reduced involvement, decreased engagement and increased turnover and absenteeism.

We can analyze observable4 behavior. For this, we use the ABC model, about which more later. In the ABC model, the A stands for Antecedents. An antecedent is everything that precedes and prompts behavior. B stands for Behavior. C stands for Consequences, everything that follows behavior.

The function of an antecedent is to prompt people to act. In other words: it sets the occasion, or the stage for behavior. Scientific research clearly shows that antecedents can trigger behavior, but are seldom strong enough to maintain desired behavior over time. Our brain makes future behavior mainly dependent on the consequences of our current behavior! We think these consequences are more important than, for example, what others say to us. B.F. Skinner put it this way: “behavior is a function of its consequences”.

Analyzing observable behavior, for example, answers the following questions:

◾ “Why are we now specifically emitting this behavior and not other behavior?”

◾ “How do you get people to want to behave differently?”

This book gives answers to these questions and provides executives and other influencers with a solid and evidence-based approach for dealing with behavioral, performance and motivational issues.

1.1 The role of working conditions in performance issues

Working conditions can motivate and inspire people, but can also seriously demotivate them. Some of your colleagues go to work every day with a feeling in the pit in their stomach. Not because their work is tedious or boring, but because their working conditions consume all their energy. Going to work is a challenge that these people dread taking on every day. Working for long periods under energy-draining working conditions is no fun for anyone. In fact, it makes us ill.

People who are reluctant to work will perform at minimum levels. Managers and other influencers notice this and, from their role or function, use their power and authority to try to boost performance. Frequently their efforts produce a lot of hassle and have little success as a result.

Restoring motivation and job satisfaction and thus improving job performance is a journey full of pitfalls and seemingly unexpected twists. If, after a number of management interventions, it appears that the performance level of an employee is still below par, it is not uncommon to start a process in which both parties eventually part ways. A ‘lose-lose situation’ for everyone involved.

Research by the real estate organization CB Richard Ellis (CBRE) and the University of Twente5 clearly demonstrates that a healthy office contributes to happier and more productive employees. People are usually perfectly capable of adapting to changes in the physical environment. Consider, for example, relocating within a building, or to another building, or switching to another employer. Sometimes it takes a while to get used to different sounds, different acoustics and colors and a different room layout. People who are unexpectedly confronted with such changes in their familiar environment may be emotionally affected. The process of getting used to and adapting to a new or changed environment is called ‘adaptation6’. Adaptation, generally speaking, is temporarily at the expense of performance.

The social conditions in which people perform are very important. The interaction with colleagues and leaders at work directly influences well-being and, therefore, directly and indirectly affects people’s performance levels and motivation. Social circumstances are about matters such as:

◾ How do we interact?

◾ How do we communicate with each other?

◾ Do we really recognize and accept each other sufficiently?

In this context we often speak of ‘social and psychological safety’. Lack of psychological safety undermines confidence, respect and trust. Without confidence, respect and trust it is difficult to become a good team7. Without confidence, respect and trust, it is difficult to perform well as an individual, team or organization.

How do you build respect and trust? We want to answer that question too. It is common knowledge that leaders play a vital role in the process of cultivating and maintaining respect, trust and psychological safety. Their leadership style, feedback (or lack thereof!), in short, their leadership behavior, is the key to improved performance, and to more inspired and motivated employees. Often performance improvement of an individual or a team starts with a different style of leadership!

1.2 Organizations are constantly changing, and with varying degrees of success

Organizations are constantly changing. We distinguish between ‘organic changes’ and ‘planned changes’. The organic changes occur naturally and spontaneously: new people come in, people change places, roles and positions, people leave the organization. Other examples of such organic changes are adjustments and improvements in working methods that we implement almost unnoticed. Simply because it is possible and because the new way works better, simpler, or easier.

Planned changes are the focus of organizational change management. Much has been published about organizational change management. There are very thorough training courses and it is an attractive field for many people to work in. There is a great need for the successful implementation of planned organizational changes. Consider, for example, the introduction of completely new ways of working, the implementation of complex IT systems, or organizations that grow and change by taking over other organizations. These kinds of changes usually have characteristics of well thought-out, planned and managed organizational changes.

It is not easy to manage and successfully complete such planned organizational changes. A characteristic of the present time is the rapidly changing environment, which forces organizations to make changes as well:

◾ Market needs are rapidly changing. Not responding to these changing needs quickly jeopardizes your organization;

◾ Changing laws and regulations, and continuous technological developments are important influencers of your market, your competitors and, above all, your own organization.

◾ The world around us is digitizing, automating and robotizing extensively and at high speed. These developments undeniably affect the way your organization works and does business.

Such changes often lead to organizational change initiatives. The following also applies: “during the renovation, the store will remain open for customers.”

If we look at the kind of changes that modern organizations are mostly engaged in, we see that they are involved with, or have a strong focus on:

◾ Digital transformation;

◾ Introducing agile ways of working;

◾ Organizing self-organization, or self-managing teams;

◾ Culture programs because “attitude and behavior will have to change, to make the customer’s journey even better”.

Reports about successfully planned change programs create an ambiguous picture. We explain this ambiguity partly with the simple observation that the definition of “a successfully planned change” is sometimes not clear enough for all involved. This makes it possible for a change to be successful from one perspective, but unsuccessful (or less successful) from another perspective.

Ed Kerkman – editor of Management Executive – writes8 about the so-called 70% myth that invariably rears its head during planned changes: “The 70% failure myth is based on the book ‘Reengineering the corporation’, in which Hammer and Champy claim that according to a ‘non-scientific estimate’ 50% to 70% fail. Which later was conveniently simplified by others to 70%. And it took on a life of its own.”

On the other hand, McKinsey9, 10 confirms that only 30% of the change initiatives actually results in successful organizational change. You may also wonder what the definition of ‘success’ is. Perhaps companies take it for granted that only three or four out of five objectives defined in the business case are actually achieved? In short: an ambiguous picture with a range of opinions and ideas, with “the truth” probably somewhere in the middle. Still, reason enough to deal more effectively with organizational change initiatives. Especially, because attitude and behavior are usually in the top three causes of the failure of the change program. The new system or process has been introduced but is not yet sufficiently used or followed.

1.2.1 Realizing behavioral change is the key to success

Regardless of the type of change or development an organization is going through, people are the all-determining success factor. More specifically, the observable behavior of those people is the all-determining success factor!

We often mention behavior together in one sentence with culture and attitude. It is obvious that achieving successful organizational change requires that culture, attitude and behavior all change.

1.2.2 Specifying behavior is difficult

During OBM training and workshops, we have noticed time and again that people find it difficult to specify behavior in concrete terms. Being able to specify behavior is a prerequisite for being able to change it in a targeted manner. And if that behavior changes, we also want to be able to establish and prove that change occurred. What proof do we have that behavior has indeed changed?

Establishing a cause-effect relationship between unwanted behavior and reduced performance proves to be difficult. The other way around: establishing a cause-effect relationship between emitting, or exhibiting desired behavior more often and the resulting improved performance also proves to be difficult.

In this book we explain what behavior is, and how behavior and work performance are related. We also show how you can demonstrably improve work performance through behavioral change in a way that everyone involved enjoys!

1.3 Structure of this book

This book guides the reader through a number of basic concepts from the field of Organizational Behavior Management, OBM.

Chapter 2 places OBM within the field of ‘Applied Behavior Analysis’, or ‘ABA’ for short. We also introduce the most important ‘building blocks’ of the OBM philosophy.

Chapter 3 deals with the first OBM building block: ‘performance’. We explain how performance is defined within OBM and what role performance plays in organizational change processes.

Chapter 4 examines the difference between respondent behavior and operant behavior. The distinction is interesting because of the differences in conditioning of both forms of behavior.

Chapter 5 briefly discusses popular concepts and approaches to behavior and behavioral change. Concepts and constructs such as intrinsic motivation, mindset, top-current and undercurrent are covered.

Chapter 6 deals with the second OBM building block: ‘the four functions of behavior’. Observable behavior always serves one or more functions for the performer. Understanding the function of observable behavior contributes to understanding what needs to be done to influence behavior more effectively.

In Chapter 7 we discuss the ‘ABC Model’. This model is at the heart of OBM and OBM interventions. The model helps us to explain why behavior occurs, or why it does not occur in a way that a leader or an influencer would like to see.

Chapter 8 shows ‘the three pitfalls’ an influencer should avoid. By avoiding these pitfalls, the probability of a successful intervention significantly increases.

In Chapter 9 we use a true story about conditioning a parakeet as a mirror for interventions on attitude and behavior in organizations. The parallels are recognizable and interesting.

Chapter 10 discusses the ‘OBM protocol’. This protocol is the guideline we use to approach and structure OBM interventions. Using this protocol greatly increases the probability of successful change.

Finally, the appendices contain an overview of the topics from our online learning environment, a sample case of an OBM intervention and a so-called “non-behavior checklist”. That is a list of descriptions of behavior, which are generally considered to be actionable behaviors, but in fact are not. To make these descriptions actionable, they should be operationalized first.

1.4How this book came about

This book is the end result of Robert den Broeder’s education to become a ‘Certified OBM Expert’ at the VU University in Amsterdam. Robert did this training under the guidance of Dr. Marius Rietdijk.

Robert undertook extensive literature studies while writing this book. The results of these literature studies were combined with his own training and consultancy experiences and the experiences of other OBM practitioners and coaches in the Netherlands.

The first version of the manuscript was assessed with great dedication and precision by Joost Kerkhofs in his role as reviewer and experienced OBM professional. Joost put so much energy into it that Robert suggested completing the manuscript together. With his knowledge and insights, Joost made an important and enriching contribution to the final manuscript. This is how this book was born.

1      Paul Gavoni, Ed.D., BCBA, Vice President at Brett DiNovi & Associates.

2      Caluwé, L. de, Vermaak, H., Leren veranderen, Een handboek voor de veranderkundige (2006), p. 31 (Dutch).

3      Caluwé, L. de, Vermaak, H., Leren veranderen, Een handboek voor de veranderkundige (2006), p. 25. (Dutch).

4      Unobservable behavior exists as well. This is mainly respondent behavior. See Sub-section 4.2.3.

5      Nelson, E. C., CBRE en Universiteit Twente, Het sneeuwbaleffect van Healthy Offices (2017).

6      Holland, J. and Skinner, B.F., The analysis of behavior, (1961), p. 215.

7      See Patrick Lencioni, The five dysfunctions of a team (2002).

8      https://www.managementimpact.nl/artikel/veranderen-helemaal-niet-zo-moeilijk (visited 07-01-2020). (Dutch).

9      https://www.aascu.org/corporatepartnership/McKinseyReport2.pdf (visited 07-01-2020).

10    http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/leadership/changing-change-management (visited 03-02-2020).

2 Organizational Behavior Management (OBM)

2.1 OBM and behaviorism

OBM is Applied Behavior Analysis in organizations. Applied Behavior Analysis is defined11 as: “an evidence-based method of examining and changing what people (and other living creatures) say and do.”

Applied Behavior Analysis, when dealing with behavioral issues, mainly focuses on the environment of the individual. The goal is to analyze and understand behavior in the context within which the behavior takes place. Changes in the environment lead to changes in behavior and behavioral patterns. It is always about changing the environment and not about changing or manipulating people.

Applied Behavior Analysis is derived from the field of Experimental Behavior Analysis. That is, the principles of behavior are established in laboratories and controlled experiments. In practice, we apply these principles via the OBM protocol.

Figure 1 OBM, Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) and Experimental Behavior Analysis.

Behaviorism is the philosophy of science of Behavior Analysis. Philosophy of science is the part of philosophy that deals with critically examining the assumptions, methods and results of the sciences. Behaviorism is therefore concerned with the critical examination of the assumptions, methods and results of Behavior Analysis and other behavioral sciences.

2.2 Building blocks within OBM

OBM has a number of ‘building blocks’, namely:

◾ Performance in a context;

◾ The functions of behavior;

◾ The ABC model;

◾ The OBM protocol.

These building blocks have underlying concepts and principles. The following chapters describe these building blocks, and a number of related concepts and principles in some detail. With this, we aim to provide the reader with a solid foundation to start working on concrete improvements in performance and behavioral change.

2.3 Performance in context

The key to better service operations and enhanced business operations is for all employees to emit desired behavior more often. Any intervention on behavior in an organization should also, preferably, address a defined organizational problem. That often makes organizational behavioral issues very specific. The concept we would like to introduce here is that of ‘performance’. Behavioral interventions in organizations make sense if they lead to better performance. There is little point in wanting to change ‘behavior in general’. The question is always: why would you want that?

Performance is always delivered in a specific organizational context. The context includes the physical and social environment in which individuals and teams perform. Context can support and sustain performance, but also limit or even block it.

2.4 Functions of behavior

Behavior is considered functional if it produces the desired results, or intended effects for the performer. A person tries to influence his/her immediate environment through his/her behavior. Research12 identified four basic functions of behavior. Whether the individual behaves appropriately or inappropriately, consciously or unconsciously, the behavior always serves a function for the performer. Understanding the function of a behavior or a behavioral pattern is crucial in determining an effective intervention13 on that behavior. The intervention can be aimed at increasing, maintaining or decreasing specific behaviors, or behavioral patterns.

2.5 ABC model and the OBM protocol

Intervening on behavior must be done in an ethical way. It is wise to make use of scientifically sound intervention techniques. The ABC model and the OBM protocol enable you to intervene on behavior in an ethically and scientifically responsible manner.

11    Mayer, G.R., Sulzer-Azaroff, B. & Wallace, M., Behavior analysis for lasting change 4th edition (2019), p. 5-7.

12    Hanley, G. P., Iwata, B. A. and McCord B. E. (1994), Functional Analysis of Problem Behavior: a review, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, (summer 2003), p. 147-185.

13    Mayer, G.R., Sulzer-Azaroff, B. & Wallace, M., Behavior analysis for lasting change 4th edition (2019), p. 38-39.

3 Performance: result and behavior in a context

Organizations need to structure and organize their activities. Each organization has more or less unique value streams, processes, procedures and work instructions to structure and manage their ways of working. An important reason for structuring activities is to increase the probability of producing the desired results, or the delivery of added value, while at the same time reducing unnecessary costs and risks. This does not mean that structuring activities always leads to the desired results, or a reduction in costs and risks.

A process or a value stream consists of a sequence of activities. Often, there are clear relationships or dependencies between the activities. At a high level of abstraction, it resembles the action shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Activity flows produce information and (interim) results that are transferred to the next activity in the chain.

Activity 1, for example recording an order or a request, may consist of one or more observable behaviors. The activity produces information and other (interim) results (records of each registered order with relevant information in each record) that are transferred to Activity 2. Activity 2 can also consist of one or more behaviors, for example focused on handling the order. The specific action uses the information stored in the transferred record.

◾Performance: the sum of behavior and the results produced by that behavior, in an organizational context.

From an OBM perspective, processes and value streams are all sequences of targeted performance.

The term ‘performance’ is an important building block of OBM. We use the terms performance and work performance interchangeably in this book.

People perform all day long, every day. Performances can be big or small, good or bad, and important or less important. An organization that aims to improve its organizational culture and behaviors often has the underlying aim that this intervention will lead to better collaboration and decision-making. Improved collaboration and better decision-making should lead to better organizational performance.

Performance improvement ultimately contributes to the realization of the vision, mission, goals and objectives of the organization and, of course, contributes to more added value for the customer and greater customer satisfaction.

We always deliver performance within a certain organizational context. Think, for example, of a departmental performance, team performance, or an individual performance. People also perform in non-business environments: for example at school and in sports clubs.

In the context of performance, results are a demonstrable consequence of specific behavior. So there is a cause-effect relationship: specific behaviors produce specific results.

All performances preferably add value for the organization and the customer in a demonstrable way.

Figure 3 Performance is the sum of behavior and results in an organizational context.

Figure 3 shows the components of performance: namely behavior and results in a specific context. As Marius Rietdijk14 puts it, “performance is the sum of behavior and results.”

Brethower15 defines performance as: “a result or consequence of any intervention or activity, including individual, team, or organization.”

Implementing process improvements, or for instance applying the five Lean principles (value, value stream, flow, pull, perfection) both serve the same purpose: better results, more collaboration and ultimately better customer service. In OBM terms: they are aimed at demonstrably improving performance.

The concepts of result and behavior are precisely defined within OBM. The following sections address the definitions of result and behavior.

3.1Result

Each performance yields one or more results. Good performance produces desirable, good, valuable results.

In OBM a result is defined as:

◾Result:all what remains after the behavior is completed.

You will, therefore, be left with results when you have completed an activity, a process step or executed an instruction. This means that a result is always very concrete. Results are usually tangible, such as documents, chairs, biscuits and cars. There are also results that are less tangible, for example computer software, or records in a computer system.

Important features of a result are:

◾ You can leave it behind, or hand it over to someone else;

◾ There is value for the recipient.

In addition to concrete results, behavior also has other truly important effects. The results, or effects of our own behavior, or somebody else’s behavior produces emotions and feelings. These are at the heart of what makes us human. These emotions literally charge the effects and results of our behavior and add true personal value to them. This is what makes results meaningful.

Emotions and feelings show if we care about what happens, or not. Love, happiness and also fear, just to name a few, have a strong effect on our future behaviors. The feelings produced by (the results of) our actions, our behaviors, unfortunately do not count as a result in OBM terms.

Imagine you have worked hard all day and you feel really good about your performance. You can’t leave that good feeling on a desk or put it in a drawer when you go home. Also, you cannot transfer your good feeling to a colleague. You can tell your colleague how you feel, but that is not the same as physically transferring the feeling, in the same way as you would transfer a report. It is probably very important to you that you feel good after a day’s work, but that feeling is not a concrete result in OBM terms.

A useful tool to determine whether something is a result is the so-called “Leave-it test” by T. Gilbert (1978).

◾Leave-it test16: if you can leave it behind when you walk out of the office or plant, it is a result. If it is something you take with you, it is not.

Examples of results are: a made bed, a document, a painted wall. These results pass the Leave it test.

A result, once delivered, no longer depends on the person or group that delivered the performance. They do not have to be present if another person assesses or uses the result. Of course, the people who have delivered the performance are in many cases perfectly capable of assessing their own results. Results are preferably of value to the customer or to the person who produced the result.

If the result is of no value to anyone, then there is no point to producing it. Those are useless achievements. Such activities waste valuable time, energy and resources, and must be stopped. We sometimes see this phenomenon when creating reports. The person who creates the report (a result) is fairly sure this report will not be used by management; it doesn’t really matter what is in the report. The recipient politely receives the report, saves it somewhere and ticks a box in a checklist. The question is whether creating such reports is a meaningful performance with meaningful results.

Tips for specifying results

Improving performance starts with making the desired performance as specific as we can. The first step is to specify the desired result. Make sure the performer is absolutely clear about the desired result(s).

The following tips make specifying desired results easier:

◾ A result is what remains after the behavior has been completed;

◾ We describe results with a noun. We describe behavior with a verb;

◾ Desired results are of direct or indirect value to the customer or consumer. Results are transferable. For example, the customer/consumer can do something with the result, or it makes them happy, or satisfied. Therefore, the result is of value to the recipient;

◾ We want to have, see, experience or obtain more desired results.

3.2 Pitfalls to avoid when specifying results

In practice, we see three pitfalls we would like to avoid when specifying results:

◾ Strong focus on results that you want less of;

◾ Mixing results and activities;

◾ Confusing results with measurements and scores on performance indicators.

Strong focus on results that you want less of

Many leaders and other influencers often know exactly what they don’t want. They want fewer mistakes, lower costs, less absenteeism and less unwanted behavior. In itself, this is understandable and is probably what many leaders and other influencers want.

◾ The challenge is: focus on results that you want to see more of.

An important principle is that behavior produces results. Leaders who aim for fewer mistakes thereby inadvertently inhibit performance. Doing less is the easiest way to make fewer mistakes. In fact, aiming for fewer errors lowers the overall performance level to an absolute minimum. Usually with the effect that leaders emphasize even more that it is extremely important to make fewer mistakes. If the desired performance improvement, namely a decrease in the number of errors, still fails to materialize, leaders often find themselves forced to intervene firmly and display strong leadership, often resulting in a loss of psychological safety, increased turnover, higher absenteeism and increasing stress in the workplace.

Also remember: producing less of what you don’t want, does not mean that you automatically get more of what you do want!

Mixing results and activities

Let’s look at the example of a consultant who was aiming to improve the performance of a group of IT project members. The specification of the desired result was initially described as: “The result: proactive collaboration, based on the current possibilities and capabilities.”

Note that the result is described with words that describe behavior. A description of the target behavior is not a concrete result. ‘Proactive collaboration’ is not a result. The description also leads to questions such as: “what does proactive collaboration mean?” And: “what result should proactive collaboration actually produce?”

Another example is: “The result: all participants in the Yellow Belt courses continue to apply what they have learned.” In this case, behavioral change – continued application of what has been learned – has been specified as a result. This specification was later changed into: “All participants in the Yellow Belt training will continue to apply what they have learned. In concrete terms, this means that at the end of the week they always have at least one completed A3 (a document in A3 format that describes an improvement) per person.”

The completed A3 is a specific and measurable result and is the result of specific behaviors. The completed A3 will also pass the Leave-it test.

Numerous organizations produce and supply all kinds of goods. In doing so, they produce and collect data and information that they record in documents and computer systems. These provide help or support in the use of the delivered goods. Thanks to the help and support, something changes for the better for a customer or a consumer. For example, an application that did not work now works again thanks to the support provided. Providing support is the activity; the restored application is the result. The repair action, for example restarting the application, is an activity, which may be a number of specific behaviors.

Another example: you have a customer on the phone. During the conversation you write down various details and answer a number of questions. At the end of the conversation, the customer indicates that (s)he is very satisfied with your help and information. The results of this performance are:

◾Data that you have recorded;

◾ The satisfied customer, who has learned something from your answers and can continue.

After the conversation, you can go home and leave the notes on your desk. The customer is satisfied and enriched with new, helpful information. (S)he remains satisfied even if you go home now.

Confusing results with measurements and scores on performance indicators

Measuring behaviors (e.g. measuring the frequency, duration and intensity of behaviors) and measuring and assessing the amount and the quality of results will yield a score.

◾Scores on performance indicators are not considered to be results in OBM terms.

Based on the scores, we form an opinion about the performance. This is not the same as producing results. We compare scores with standards, targets, agreements or baseline measurements. Our conclusion based on this comparison may very well be the reason to intervene and aim for adjustments in behavior. On the other hand, you may wish to thank the performers for their contribution and to give them a sincere and well-deserved compliment.

Taking measurements and recording scores on performance indicators are activities in a management process. That is not to say that measurements and scores are not important. They simply do not count as a result.

Measuring performance is important in any improvement process. Measurement is an important step in the OBM protocol. This protocol is discussed in Chapter 10. Realizing performance improvement is not possible without measures and data.

Performance consists of behavior(s) and result. Therefore, there are two variables we can measure:

◾ The behavior: for example, how often and for how long a certain behavior has been emitted;

◾ The result: for example, how many produced results do we see, or have, and what is the quality of these results.

Performance measurements are primarily about measuring results, where amount and quality are usually the most important performance indicators.

The number of results and their quality are both the consequence of behavior. Emitting the desired behavior more often produces more and/or better results. The delivered results are important for the customer or the consumer. Results are, mostly, easy to measure in terms of numbers and can be correctly and objectively assessed on quality characteristics.

Measurements of the behavioral frequency and the duration of the behaviors are not production results with value for the customer. However, management spends a lot of time and energy on such measurements. Collecting and discussing reports and taking action based on these reports consumes a lot of management time. In Chapter 10 on the OBM protocol we will discuss performance indicators and their impact on performance and behavior.

14    Rietdijk, M., Organisaties conditioneren, de invloed van beloning en straf op werkprestaties (2009), p. 93.

15    Brethower, D. Ph.D., Performance Analysis, Knowing what to do and how (2007), p. 180.

16    Daniels, A.C., Bringing out the best in people, How to Apply the Astonishing Power of Positive Reinforcement, Third Edition (2016), p. 103, 104.

4 Behavior

Just like results, behavior is accurately defined within OBM. There are different types, or classes of behavior, each with its own characteristics. This chapter discusses behavior in quite some detail. The following topics and concepts will be covered:

◾ Definition of behavior;

◾ Respondent behavior;

◾ Operant behavior;

◾ Verbal behavior;

◾ Internal verbal behavior.

We are all people who emit behavior all day long. We also continuously observe the behavior of others and often form an opinion about what we experience. This may suggest that if you want to improve performance and wish to understand and change behavior, you should be able to get quite far with a bit of common sense. In reality, we see that interventions based on common sense have very little desired effect, often leading to unintended and undesired effects instead. We think it is wise to apply behavioral science for addressing performance and behavioral issues.

This chapter takes a closer look at the scientifically defined concepts related to behavior.

4.1 Behavior defined

Creating a workable definition of behavior is a bit more complex than it initially seems. One definition17 of behavior is “what living organisms do, including what and how they communicate.”

This definition also includes activities such as ‘considering something’ and ‘thinking’. Activities such as considering something and thinking have an important disadvantage in the context of behavioral change: they take place in the head and mind of an individual and are therefore not, or not easily perceived by others. It is difficult to determine whether such behavior will indeed change structurally if we try to intervene on it. We refer to these forms of behavior as ‘internal behavior’, or ‘private events’.

B.F. Skinner18 defines behavior as: “Behavior is what an organism is doing or more accurately what it is observed by another organism to be doing. <…> It is more to the point to say that behavior is that part of the functioning of an organism which is engaged in acting upon or having commerce with the outside world.”

Within OBM, we mainly use Skinner’s definition of behavior. Three main characteristics of behavior, as we use the term in OBM, are:

◾Observable: behavior is visible to others because we see people making physical movements and is audible to others when we hear people say things;

◾Measurable: the frequency and duration of observable behavior can be determined objectively by taking measurements;

◾Active: people really have to do something, perform observable activities, to emit behavior.

Behavior that meets these three characteristics is referred to as “operant behavior”. In addition to operant behavior, we also have “respondent behavior”. In Section 4.2 we explain this distinction, including a number of relevant concepts. Two additional features in Section 4.1 provide a complete set of criteria that enable us to check whether or not we are dealing with a useful description of behavior. This is necessary to be able to effectively intervene on behavior, as we will discuss later.

Specifying behavior19

In conversations about behavior and behavioral change, our conversational partners regularly use all kinds of generalities in an attempt to specify, or describe behavior. We like to challenge them by asking them which behavior(s) they would prefer to see from their people. The list is almost always identical. The most commonly used descriptions of behaviors are:

◾ Take responsibility/be responsible;

◾ Take ownership;

◾ Be proactive;

◾ Be a professional/act professionally;

◾ Put the customer first;

◾ Be transparent;

◾ Openness;

◾